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The  Study  of  Com 


BY 


VERNON  M.  SHOESMITH 

Professor    of    Agronomy    and    Agronomist    of    the    Experiment    Station 
Michigan    State    Agricultural    College,    formerly    Associate 
Professor  of  Agronomy  in  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture,    Ohio     State     University 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1912 


Copyright,   1910,  by 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the   U.  S.  A. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  assistance 
rendered  by  the  following  persons  in  the  preparation 
of  this  book :  Prof.  A.  G.  McCall,  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity; Mr.  C.  G.  Williams  and  Mr.  F.  A.  Welton, 
Ohio  Experiment  Station ;  Prof.  R.  A.  Moore,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  for  suggesting  and  reading  of 
proof.  The  illustration  on  page  28  was  furnished 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station,  and  those  on  pages  21  and  2^  from  the  Kansas 
Experiment  Station.  Most  of  the  remaining  illustra- 
tions are  the  work  of  Prof.  F.  H.  Haskett,  Ohio  State 
University. 


Cerb  ' 


The  rose  may  bloom  for  England, 

The  lily  for  France  unfold; 
Ireland  may  honor  the  shamrock, 

Scotland  her  thistle  bold; 
But  the  shield  of  the  great  republic. 

The  glory  of  the  West, 
Shall  bear  a  stalk  of  tasseled  corn. 

Of  all  our  wealth  the  best. 
The  arbutus  and  the  goldenrod 

The  heart  of  the  North  may  cheer, 
And  the  mountain  laurel  for  Maryland 

Its  royal  clusters  may  rear. 
And  the  jasmine  and  magnolia 

The  crest  of  the  South  adorn. 
But  the  wide  republic's  emblem 

Is  the  bounteous  golden  corn. 

— Edna  Dean  Proctor. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Description  and  Adaptation  of  the  Sub-species 
OF  Types  of  Corn ii 

Description  and  Adaptation  of  Some  of  the 

More  Popular  Varieties  of  Corn  .     .     .17 

Tabular  Description  of  Several  Varieties  of 
Corn 29 

Judging  and  Selection  of  Ear  Corn  ....     34 

Relative  Value  of  the  Ear  Characteristics  of 

Corn 64 

Testing  the  Germination  of  Corn  ....     81 

Shelling  and  Grading  Corn  for  Planting  .     .     83 

Grade  Sheet  for  Grading  Students'  Placings 

OF  Ears  or  Samples 85 

Field  Selection  of  Corn 86 

Index 95 


PREFACE 

This  work  is  prepared  as  a  laboratory  guide  in  corn 
judging  for  use  in  agricultural  colleges,  high  schools, 
and  agricultural  extension  schools,  and  as  a  guide  to 
the  farmer  in  the  study  of  corn. 

During  the  past  decade,  which  has  meant  so  much 
for  corn  improvement,  the  score-card  method  of  judg- 
ing, in  which  definite  standards  are  set,  certain  credits 
given  to  the  several  qualities  considered  and  definite 
rules  given  for  marking  deficiencies,  has  been  largely 
employed. 

The  score-card  has  been  of  great  value  and  con- 
venience in  the  study  of  corn  at  a  time  when  little 
attention  had  been  given  to  corn  improvement ;  but 
our  corn  specialists  are  now  beginning  to  realize,  as 
our  stockmen  have  realized  for  many  years,  that  the 
score-card  is  too  arbitrary  and  unpliable  for  the  most 
careful  comparison  of  individual  or  unit  groups.  The 
primary  function  of  the  score-card  is  an  aid  to  the 
beginner,  and,  as  such,  will  doubtless  be  found  to  be 
of  considerable  value  in  the  hands  of  many  instruct- 
ors, but  in  the  experience  of  the  writer  with  under- 
graduate students  of  the  agricultural  college,  it  has 
required  much  supplementary  instruction  and  has  not 
proved  to  be  the  most  convenient  means  of  acquiring 
knowledge  as  to  detail  in  the  study  of  corn  or  the 
importance  or  relation  between  the  characteristics  con- 
sidered.    The  chief  objections  to  the  general  or  ex- 


Viii  PREFACE 

elusive   use   of  the   score-card   in   the   study   of  corn 
are: 

(i)  Most  score-cards  do  not  provide  for  sufficient 
detail  in  the  study  of  corn.  There  are  many  qualities 
which  have  not  and  can  not  well  be  included  in  the 
score-card  because  of  their  relative  unimportance  or 
their  infrequency  of  occurrence,  which  are  of  consid- 
erable importance  in  the  judging  of  certain  samples. 

(2)  The  score-card  does  not  show  the  relation  be- 
tween the  several  qualities,  except  in  a  limited  way, 
and  does  not  present  the  subject  in  an  analytical  man- 
ner which  is  conducive  to  original  study  on  the  part 
of  the  student. 

(3)  It  is  an  unsatisfactory  method  of  selecting  and 
judging  corn.  It  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that 
there  are  always  certain  definite  relations  between 
each  of  the  qualities  on  the  score-card  and  that  each 
quality  may  be  assigned  a  certain  number  of  credits. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  such  relation  exists.  For  in- 
stance, in  comparing  two  samples  it  may  be  found 
that  they  are  very  similar  in  all  respects,  with  the 
exception  of  maturity  and  seed  condition,  in  which 
they  differ  radically.  Maturity  and  seed  condition, 
then,  are  the  deciding  factors  between  these  two 
samples  and  are  worth  practically  100  points.  In  com- 
paring two  other  samples,  the  maturity  and  seed  con- 
dition may  be  found  to  be  identical,  but  the  type  or 
amount  of  corn  represents  the  important  difference. 
Any  one  of  these  qualities  may  be  worth  o,  10,  20, 
50,  or  any  number  of  credits,  and  any  score-card  in 
which  each  quality  is  always  given  a  definite  number 
of  credits  is  apt  to  fail  to  show  the  true  relative  value 
of  the  samples  or  ears. 


PREFACE  IX 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  method  of  judging 
outlined  in  this  book  are  the  arrangement  of  the  de- 
tailed characteristics  of  the  ear  in  a  manner  to  show 
their  significance  and  their  relation  to  each  other,  a 
comparison  of  ears  in  these  various  characteristics  and 
the  comparison  of  ears  and  groups  of  ears  as  units. 
The  average  relative  importance  of  the  several  char- 
acteristics is  stated  only  in  a  general  way,  but  the 
student  is  taught  the  relative  value  of  these  character- 
istics in  all  possible  combinations  of  strong  and  weak 
points  by  numerous  comparisons.  The  score-card  may 
be  used  to  advantage  in  conjunction  with  the  compari- 
son method  of  judging,  but  its  use  should  follow  that 
of  the  comparison  sheets  A  and  B  or  of  a  similar 
study,  and  be  used  to  point  out  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant characteristics  and  to  show  in  a  general  way  the 
relative  importance  of  the  several  characteristics,  with 
the  understanding  that  the  relative  importance  is  not 
a  fixed  quality. 

While  one  may  proceed  much  more  rapidly  in  the 
study  of  corn  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  in- 
structor, this  work  is  arranged,  so  far  as  possible,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  enable  the  careful  student  to  pro- 
ceed without  further  instruction. 


THE   STUDY  OF  CORN 


CHAPTER  I 
TYPES  AND  VARIETIES  OF  CORN 

Corn,  known  botanically  as  Zca  maize,  and  In  other 
countries  commonly  as  maize,  belongs  to  the  grass 
family,  but  differs  widely  from  wheat,  oats,  oar  pas- 
ture and  meadow  grasses,  and  other  common  species 
of  the  family.  P^cw  if  any  of  the  wild  types  of  corn 
are  known,  and  doubtless  the  cultivated  species  would 
become  extinct  in  a  few  years  if  not  cared  for  by 
man.  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturtevant  has  classified  corn  in  six 
sub-species  or  types,  as  follows : 

Dent  corn  {Zca  indcntata)  in  which  the  horny  en- 
dosperm is  located  mainly  at  the  edges  of  the  kernel, 
and  the  soft  or  white  endosperm  in  the  center  and 
at  the  crown.  In  maturing,  the  soft  endosperm  shrinks 
more  rapidly  than  the  horny  endosperm  and  causes  an 
indentation  and  a  more  or  less  irregular  wrinkling  or 
folding  of  the  seed  coat  at  the  crown  of  the  kernel. 
This  type,  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  varieties 
and  varying  conditions  under  which  it  has  been  grown 
for  a  great  length  of  time,  shows  a  wide  variation,  but 
is,  on  the  whole,  a  medium  to  large  type,  requiring  a 
medium  to  long  season  for  maturity.  Usually  only 
one  ear,  which  is  of  medium  or  large  size,  is  produced 
on  each  stalk. 

ntNXTY  UBRAKY       " 


12 


THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 


This  type  is  further  characterized  by  ears  which 
usually  have  a  large  number  of  rows  of  grains  and  a 
large  diameter,  the  circumference  being  about  kJ  to 
4/5  the  length  of  the  ear.    The  grains  are  long,  wedge- 


EARS   REPRESENTING    DIFFERENT    TYPES    OF    CORN 

The  first  ear  at  the  left  is  of  the  dent  type,  the  second  is  of  the 
flint  type,  and  the  third  of  the  soft  type.  The  fourth  is  pod 
corn,  the  fifth  sweet  corn,   and  the   sixth  is  pop  corn 

shaped,  and  more  or  less  angular,  being  closely  set  on 
the  cob. 

Dent  corn  is  by  far  the  most  common  type  of  corn 
and  is  especially  adapted  to  the  corn  belt  and  to  all 
sections  where  the  growing  season  is  sufficiently  long 
to  mature  it. 

Flint  corn  {^Zea  indurata)  differs  from  the  dent  type 
in  having  the  soft  endosperm  in  the  center  of  the  grain 
and    surrounded   by   the   horny    endosperm.      In   ma- 


TYPES    AND   VARIETIES   OF    CORN  1 3 

turing,  the  grain  shrinks  uniformly,  so  that  no  inden- 
tation is  produced. 

The  flint  corns  do  not  require  as  long  a  season  as 
the  dent  varieties  and  do  not  attain  as  great  a  height 
or  as  large  a  stalk  or  as  broad  leaves.  The  tendency 
to  sucker  is  much  more  marked  and  frequently  two 
or  more  ears  to  a  plant  are  produced.  The  ears  are 
produced  much  nearer  the  ground  and  are  of  a  quite 
different  type  from  those  of  the  dent  corn.  The  ears 
usually  measure  from  4^^  to  6  inches  in  circumference 
and  8  to  14  inches  in  length.  The  usual  number  of  rows 
is  8  to  12.  The  grains  are  rather  loosely  set  on  the 
cob  with  wide  furrows  between  the  rows.  The  kernels 
are  shallow,  usually  wider  than  deep,  and  rounded  at 
the  crown.  The  ear  has  a  flinty,  glossy  appearance, 
the  more  common  colors  being  some  of  the  various 
shades  of  yellow  or  white. 

This  type  is  adapted  to  our  most  northern  States 
and  to  Canada  and  to  other  sections  where  the  dent 
varieties  are  not  adapted  on  account  of  the  shortness 
of  the  season. 

Soft  corn  (Zca  amaylacca).  This  type  may  be 
readily  recognized  by  the  absence  of  the  horny  en- 
dosperm, the  entire  interior  of  the  grain,  aside  from 
the  germ,  being  composed  of  a  soft,  starchy  endosperm. 
Varieties  of  this  type  are  commonly  grown  in 
several  of  the  South  and  Central  American  countries, 
where  a  long  growing  season  is  provided;  but  none 
of  them  are  of  commercial  importance  in  the  United 
States,  although  the  Brazilian  flour  corn,  which  is  one 
of  the  varieties  of  soft  corn,  is  occasionally  grown  as 
an  ensilage  variety. 

The  shape  of  the  ear  is  similar  to  the  flint  type,  ex- 


14  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

cept  it  is  a  little  larger  in  circumference  and  somewhat 
shorter.  The  grain  is  of  the  broad,  rounded  type, 
similar  to  the  flint  kernel  and  in  some  varieties  is  very 
large.  On  account  of  the  uniform  shrinking  of  the 
grain  in  ripening,  little  if  any  indentation  appears.  The 
color  varies  widely,  white,  blue  and  black  being  the 
most  common.  The  appearance  of  the  ear  is  not  as 
glossy  as  in  the  flint  varieties. 

Sweet  corn  (Zca  sacchrata).  This  type  is  charac- 
terized by  the  translucent,  horny  appearance  of  the 
endosperm  and  the  w-rinkled  appearance  of  the  ma- 
tured kernel.  The  starch  is  more  or  less  reduced  to 
sugar,  wdiich  makes  this  type  especially  suited  to  table 
use.  The  ears  are  small  to  medium  in  size  and  usually 
have  8  to  1 6  row's,  the  grains  being  rather  broad  and 
rounded. 

The  length  of  season  required  for  maturing  varies 
widely  in  the  difl^erent  varieties,  and  selections  may 
be  had  which  are  adapted  to  any  section  where  corn 
is  grown.  Sweet  corn  usually  shows  a  decided  tend- 
ency to  sucker  and  some  of  the  larger  varieties  are 
heavy  producers  of  forage  and  valuable  for  use  as  a 
soiling  crop. 

Pop  corn  {Zca  cvcrta).  In  this  type  all  or  nearly 
all  of  the  endosperm  is  corneous  or  horny,  and  very 
liard,  which  gives  it  the  property  of  popping  or  turn- 
ing inside  out  into  an  enlarged  white  mass  upon  being- 
heated.  There  arc  two  groups  of  varieties,  the  rice 
and  the  pearl.  In  the  former  the  ears  are  inclined  to 
taper  considerably  and  the  grains  are  very  sharp  or 
pointed  at  the  crown.  In  the  latter  the  grains  are 
smooth  or  rounded  at  the  crown  and  more  compact 
on  the  cob,  and  the  ears  are  only  slightly  tapering. 


FOUR    VARIETIES    OF    FLINT    CORN 

In  tlie  upper  row  the  four  ears  at  the  left  are  Smut  Nosed  Flint,  and 
those  at  the  right  the  Red  Blazed  Flint.  In  the  bottom  row  the 
Longfellow  Flint  is  shown  at  the  left  and  the  Yellow  Flint  at 
the  right. 


1 6  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

The  ears  of  pop  corn  vary  in  length  from  about  3 
inches  in  the  Tom  Thumb  variety  to  7  or  8  inches  in 
some  of  the  larger  rice  or  pearl  varieties.  Pop  corn 
suckers  readily  and  usually  produces  several  ears  per 
plant.  The  length  of  season  required  and  the  adapta- 
bility to  different  conditions  varies  widely  in  different 
sections.  It  is  little  grown  except  for  human  con- 
sumption. 

Pod  corn  {Zea  tunticata).  This  corn  is  character- 
ized by  a  small  to  medium  sized  ear  which  is  not  only 
enclosed  in  the  husk  about  the  ear,  but  has  husks  sur- 
rounding each  kernel.  Because  of  the  tendency  of 
dent  corn  to  occasionally  revert  to  this  type  and  the 
tendency  of  pod  corn  to  break  up  into  several  types, 
this  corn  is  thought  to  be  the  primitive  or  original 
type  of  corn  from  which  the  other  types  have  de- 
veloped. 

The  plant  suckers  abundantly,  is  very  leafy,  and  has 
a  tendency  to  produce  grains  in  the  tassel.  It  is  of 
no  commercial  importance,  being  grown  only  as  a 
curiosity. 

Varieties  of  corn.  The  fact  that  corn  is  a  cross- 
fertilized  plant  and  is  with  difficulty  kept  pure,  and 
the  fact  that  any  type  will  change  materially  in  a  few 
years  if  placed  under  greatly  different  conditions,  ac- 
counts for  the  existence  of  the  thousand  or  more,  more 
or  less  distinct  varieties  or  strains  that  are  grown 
to-day.  These  varieties  show  every  possible  varia- 
tion in  type  of  plant,  ear,  adaptability,  etc. 

The  dent  varieties  are  frequently  classified  as  to 
the  length  of  season,  as  follows :  early,  medium  early, 
medium,  medium  late  and  late.  And  also  as  to  color, 
as  follows:  yellow  varieties,  which  represent  the  most 


TYPES   AND   VARIETIES    OF    CORN  1/ 

common  type  in  at  least  the  northern  part  of  the  corn 
beh  and  the  Northern  States ;  the  white  varieties, 
which  are  quite  commonly  grown  throughout  the  corn 
belt  and  are  the  preferred  type  in  the  South,  and  the 
yellow,  white-capped,  blue,  red,  and  calico  corns,  which 
are  grown  in  a  limited  way  in  certain  sections  through- 
out the  corn  belt. 

No  attempt  can  be  made  here  to  classify  and  de- 
scribe all  the  important  varieties,  but  a  brief  descrip- 
tion is  given  below  of  a  few  of  the  most  popular 
ones. 

DESCRIPTION  AND  ADAPTATION  OF  VARIETIES 

Boone  County  White.  The  Boone  County  White 
was  originated  in  Boone  County,  Indiana,  but  is  prob- 
ably more  widely  distributed  to-day  than  any  other 
variety  of  white  corn.  It  is  a  rather  large,  nearly 
cylindrical  ear,  with  i8  to  22  rows,  measuring  in  the 
north  central  zone  about  9  to  10  inches  in  length  and 
7  to  7^  inches  in  circumference  and  attaining  a  some- 
what larger  size  as  grown  farther  south.  The  grains 
are  of  medium  width  and  fairly  thick,  and  are  usually 
of  good  length.  The  color  is  a  cream  white  and  the 
indentation  varies  from  medium  smooth  to  rough,  the 
medium  rough  type  being  more  common. 

Although  the  ear  characteristics  are  fairly  well  fixed, 
the  Boone  County  White,  on  account  of  its  wide  dis- 
tribution, has  developed  into  several  types  of  varying 
maturity  and  adaptability.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  a 
rather  large,  late-maturing  variety,  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  fertile  soils  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
north  central  zone  and  throughout  the  south  central 
and  southern  zones. 


TYPES    AND    VARIETIES    OF    CORN  I9 

Clarage.  The  Clarage  has  been  developed  in  Ohio, 
where  it  is  quite  commonly  grown.  It  is  a  small- 
eared  corn,  measuring  8  to  9  inches  in  length  and 
6^  to  7)4  inches  in  circumference,  the  number  of 
rows  varying  from  14  to  18,  and  the  color  being  a 
medium  yellow.  The  kernels  are  fairly  broad  and  of 
only  medium  depth.  The  indentation  is  medium 
smooth. 

It  is  medium  early  in  maturity,  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  clay  soils  of  medium  fertility  in  north- 
ern Ohio,  to  the  uplands  in  southern  Ohio,  and  to 
similar  conditions  in  adjoining  States.  It  varies  con- 
siderably, both  in  type  and  adaptability  in  the  hands 
of  different  breeders,  these  selections  or  strains  usu- 
ally lacking  the  uniformity  of  type  found  in  the 
Reid's  Yellow  Dent  and  Leaming  varieties. 

Cocke  Prolific.  This  variety,  which  has  long  been 
grown  in  the  South,  is  representative  of  a  large  class 
of  Southern  corns  known  as  prolific  varieties.  The 
ears  are  small,  8  to  9  inches  in  length  and  6  to  6^ 
inches  in  circumference ;  but  two  or  more  ears  are  fre- 
quently produced  on  each  stalk.  The  ear  is  slightly 
tapering  to  tapering,  with  10  to  14  rows  and  a  medium 
broad  kernel  with  rather  wide  space  between  the  rows. 
The  indentation  is  medium  smooth.  The  grain  is  of 
only  medium  depth  and  the  per  cent  of  grain  is 
medium. 

This  and  other  prolific  varieties  are  well  adapted 
to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  South  and 
are  quite  commonly  grown.  On  account  of  the  large 
amount  of  forage,  they  are  promising  varieties  for 
silage;  but  it  is  questionable  if  varieties  which  pro- 
duce a  single  ear  per  plant  cannot  be  made  to  pro- 


20  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

duce  as  large  yields  of  grain  and  can  be  harvested 
more  economically. 

Collier's  Excelsior.  The  Collier's  Excelsior  is  a 
large-eared,  white  variety  which  has  been  developed 
in  recent  years  in  eastern  Maryland,  originating 
from  a  cross  between  the  Farmer's  Interest  and 
White  Elephant  and  closely  resembling  the  Boone 
County  White  in  t3'pe.  The  ears  are  cylindrical, 
well  filled  at  the  butt  and  tip,  and  measuring  lo  to 
II  inches  in  length  and  734  to  7^  inches  in  circum- 
ference and  have  18  to  24  rows.  The  indentation  is 
medium  rough  and  the  kernels  deep. 

While  this  variety  has  not  been  widely  distributed 
as  yet,  its  apparent  productiveness  and  adaptability 
to  fertile  soils  or  soils  of  medium  fertility  in  the  east- 
ern ends  of  the  south  central  and  southern  zones 
would  indicate  a  wider  distribution  during  the  next 
few  years. 

Funk's  Yellow  Dent.  The  Funk's  Yellow  Dent  is 
a  medium  large  and  medium  late  maturing  variety, 
which  has  been  developed  during  recent  years  in  cen- 
tral Illinois.  In  general  appearance  the  ears  resemble 
the  Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  which  entered  largely  into  its 
early  breeding.  The  ears  are  slightly  tapering,  9  to 
10  inches  in  length  and  about  7  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  Indentation  is  medium  rough  and  the  color 
is  a  medium  yellow,  with  a  light  or  pale  yellow  cap. 
The  grains  are  not  as  compactly  placed  upon  the  ear 
as  in  many  strains  of  the  Reid's  Yellow  Dent ;  the 
grains  are  deep  and  the  butts  usually  well  rounded, 
and  the  tips  well  filled. 

Some  strains  of  this  variety  have  been  bred  for  high 
content  of  protein  and  oil.     While  this  variety  does 


TYPES   AND    VARIETIES   OF    CORN 


21 


not  have  the  wide  distribution  of  the  Reid's  Yellow 
Dent  and  Boone  County  White,  it  has  a  growing  popu- 
larity, throughout  the  corn  belt.  It  is  best  adapted  to 
conditions  of  the  south  central  zone. 

Hickory  King.  The  Hickory  King  is  a  variety  of 
corn  which  has  long  been  grown  in  the  South  and  to 
a  limited  extent  in  the  south  central  zone.     It  is  only 


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HILDRETH    YELLOW    DENT 

A  variety   which   is  well  adapted  to  the   bottom   lands,   and   more   fertile 
soils  of  Kansas 


a  medium-sized  ear,  8  to  9  inches  in  length,  6>^  to  7 
inches  in  circumference.  It  is  characterized  chiefly 
by  its  small  number  of  rows  and  its  very  large,  broad 
grains  and  its  rather  smooth,  flinty  appearance.  It  is 
medium  late  in  maturity,  and  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  medium  or  poorer  soils  south  of  the  Ohio  River. 

Hildreth.  The  Hildreth  corn  is  a  variety  which  has 
been  developed  during  recent  years  in  Kansas,  where 
it  is  a  promising  variety  for  the  river-bottom  soils  in 


22  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

the  eastern  and  central  parts  of  the  State.  It  is  verv 
late  in  maturing  and  is  not  well  adapted  to  any  part 
of  the  corn  belt  north  of  the  northern  border  of  Kan- 
sas nor  the  soils  of  poor  fertility  or  unfavorable  con- 
ditions south  of  this  line.  The  ears  are  large  in  cir- 
cumference and  of  fairly  good  length;  the  cobs  are 
medium  large,  but  the  grains  are  very  deep.  The 
space  between  the  rows  while  not  wide  is  frequently 
deep,  there  being  a  large  number  of  rows  with  a 
grain  of  narrow  or  medium  width. 

Hogue's  Yellow  Dent.  This  variety,  which  has 
been  bred  since  1885  in  Saline  County,  Nebraska,  and 
has  since  been  distributed  to  other  parts  of  Nebraska 
and  adjoining  States,  has  a  medium-sized  ear  9  to  10 
inches  in  length  and  6%  to  734  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  ear  is  slightly  tapering,  has  16  to  20  rows, 
is  medium  compact,  and  is  medium  rough  in  indenta- 
tion. It  has  a  medium  deep  grain  and  a  good  per 
cent  of  shelled  corn.     It  is  medium  late  in  maturity. 

This  variety  has  proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  east- 
ern and  central  Nebraska  and  to  northeastern  Kansas 
and  promises  to  be  more  widely  distributed  within 
the  next  few  years. 

Kansas  Sunflower.  This  variety,  which  originated 
in  central  Kansas,  has  been  carefully  selected  for  many 
years,  but  did  not  have  a  wide  distribution  until  tested 
and  disseminated  by  the  Kansas  experiment  station. 

The  ear  is  slightly  tapering,  or  nearly  cylindrical,  9 
to  10  inches  in  length  and  about  7  inches  in  circum- 
ference; it  has  14  to  18  rows,  with  a  rather  broad 
grain,  the  rows  usually  being  carried  out  fairly  well 
at  butt  and  tip;  the  cob  is  medium  small  and  the 
grain  fairly  deep  for  the  size  of  the  ear;  the  color  is 


TVl'ES    AND    VARIETIES    OF    CORX 


23 


a  rich  golden  yellow.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
drier  sections  and  thinner  soils  of  Kansas  and  ad- 
joining states. 

Learning.  The  Learning  variety,  which  was  origi- 
nally bred  in  Clinton  County,  Ohio,  consists  of  two 
distinct  types.  The  old  type  of  Learning  is  a  dis- 
tinctly tapering  ear  with  18  to  24  rows  and  from  7  to 


M  AULEY    WHITE 
A   corn  of  wide  adaptability  in   Kansas   and   adjoining  states. 

8  inches  in  length  and  from  7  to  7^  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. The  color  is  medium  dark,  often  with 
a  tinge  of  red.  The  grain  is  apt  to  be  rather  narrow 
and  thick  and  is  often  quite  irregular.  The  indenta 
tion  is  medium  smooth.  The  butts  and  tips  are  us- 
ually well  filled. 

The  Improved  Leaming  was  bred  in  Illinois  from 
the  old  Ohio  type,  from  which  it  differs  radically  in 
appearance.  The  ears  are  slightly  to  medium  taper- 
ing and  have  18  to  22  rows.     The  length  of  ears  is 


24  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

9  to  lo  inches  and  the  circumference  about  7  inches, 
the  size  varying  somewhat  according  to  the  soil  and 
cHmatic  condition. 

The  color  is  a  medium  yellow  with  a  tinge  of  golden 
yellow,  and  the  indentation  varies  from  medium  to 
medium  rough.  The  grains  are  usually  somewhat 
wider  and  much  more  uniform  than  in  the  old  type. 
The  Leaming  has  a  wide  adaptation,  being  com- 
monly grown  in  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio,  and 
to  a  less  extent  in  several  of  the  adjoining  states, 
and  also  in  several  of  the  Eastern  and  Southern 
states. 

Minnesota  No.  13.  This  is  a  variety  which  has 
been  developed  by  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Sta- 
tion from  a  native  Minnesota  variety,  and  was  first 
distributed  by  this  station  about  10  years  ago.  The 
ears  are  slightly  tapering,  7  to  8  inches  in  length  and 
6  to  6^  inches  in  circumference,  and  14  to  18  rows 
with  a  medium  broad  kernel.  The  indentation  is 
medium  smooth  and  the  color  is  a  medium  yellow. 
While  the  uniformity  is  not  as  marked  as  in  some 
varieties,  the  kernels  are  fairly  deep  and  are  com- 
pactly set  on  the  cob.  The  butts  are  usually  well 
rounded  and  the  tips  well  filled.  It  is  especially 
adapted  for  growing  in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas, 
where  it  is  commonly  grown.  It  is  also  grown  to  a 
less  extent  in  several  other  states. 

Pickett's  Yellow  Dent.  The  selection  and  im- 
provement of  this  variety  may  be  traced  back  for  a 
couple  of  decades  or  more,  but  its  distribution 
throughout  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan  has 
taken  place  during  the  last  few  years.  The  ears  are 
slightly   tapering   and   are   of   medium   small    size, 


^m^^T  isnguw 


TYPES    AND    VARIETIES    OF    CORN  25 

measuring  7  to  8^  inches  in  length  and  6>^  to  'jYz 
inches  in  circumference.  The  number  of  rows  varies 
from  16  to  20.  The  kernels  are  medium  long  and 
are  very  compactly  placed  on  the  cob.  The  tips  are 
well  filled,  the  butts  well  rounded,  and  the  shank 
small.  The  color  is  a  medium  bright  yellow  with 
light  yellow  caps.  It  is  a  medium  small  and  rather 
early  variety,  reaching  the  height  of  about  8  feet  and 
always  maturing  nicely  unless  planted  late.  It  is 
well  adapted  to  central  and  southern  Michigan, 
and  is  growing  in  popularity.  It  is  little  grown  in 
other  states. 

Pride  of  the  North.  The  Pride  of  the  North  has 
been  a  more  or  less  popular  corn  in  the  Northern 
States  for  several  decades,  but  does  not  show  the 
breeding  and  type  found  in  some  other  varieties.  The 
ears  are  small,  the  larger  ones  measuring  only  7  to 
8  inches  in  length  and  about  6  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  number  of  rows  varies  from  14  to  18,  and 
the  kernel  is  medium  wide  and  rather  shallow.  The 
indentation  is  medium  smooth ;  the  color  is  a  medium 
dark  yellow.  The  ears  are  slightly  tapering;  the  fur- 
rows between  the  rows  are  fairly  wide  and  the  kernels 
are  only  fairly  uniform. 

This  variety  is  very  early  in  maturing,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  growing  in  the  northern  tier  of  States, 
where  it  is  a  good  producer,  or  for  late  planting  some- 
what south  of  this  belt. 

Reid's  Yellow  Dent.  In  the  north  central  zone, 
where  the  Reid's  Yellow  Dent  variety  is  most  com- 
monly grown,  it  is  of  medium  maturity  and  size,  the 
ears  measuring  9  to  10  inches  in  length  and  6^  to 
7^  inches  in  circumference.     The  typical  number  of 


26 


THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 


rows  is  1 8  to  20,  but  ears  are  commonly  found  vary- 
ing from  16  to  24  rows.  The  color  is  a  medium  dark 
yellow  on  the  sides  of  the  grain,  often  with  a  tinge 
of  red  appearing,  the  color  of  the  caps  or  crowns  be- 
ing a  light  or  pale  yellow. 

The  Reid's  Yellow   Dent  corn   usually  has   a  very 


>t^^fe» 


KEID  S    YELLOW    DENT 


compact  appearance,  there  being  little  space  between 
the  grains.  The  kernels  have  a  characteristic  shape, 
being  rather  narrow  and  thick  and  appearing  some- 
what square,  as  seen  in  the  ear.  The  butts  and  tips 
are  usually  well  covered.  The  shank  or  attachment 
•t-e-s^alk  is  usually  small,  frequently  too  small  to  sup- 
.  ]W:>rt'the  car. 

This  variety  was  originally  bred  in  north  central  Illi- 
nois, but  has  for  many  years  been  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  north  central  and  south  central  zones 


1      TYPES   AND    VARIETIES   OF    CORN  2'J 

and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  northern  zone.  It  varies 
greatly  in  adaptability  and  maturity  and  somewhat  in 
type,  in  the  hands  of  different  breeders  and  under  dif- 
ferent soil  and  climatic  conditions,  but  the  uniformity 
and  type  (with  the  exception  of  color)  is  usually  well 
marked  in  the  hands  of  any  breeder. 

It  is  well  adapted  to  the  rich  soils  or  soils  of  me- 
dium fertility  in  the  central  zone,  though  in  the  south 
central  zone  larger  growing  corns  frequently  return 
larger  yields  upon  the  more  fertile  soils. 

Silver  King.  The  Silver  King  originated  in  north- 
ern Iowa,  but  has  since  been  improved  and  widely  dis- 
seminated throughout  Wisconsin  by  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station. 

The  ear  is  fairly  large  for  the  northern  zone,  meas- 
uring 8  to  10  inches  in  length  and  6>^  to  7}^  inches 
in  circumference.  It  has  14  to  18  rows,  wath  a  medium 
wide  but  deep  grain  and  generally  a  good  per  cent  of 
corn.  The  ear  is  nearly  cylindrical,  with  the 
butts  and  tips  well  filled.  The  indentation  is  me- 
dium. It  is  an  early  maturing  variety,  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  northern  Iowa,  and 
southern  Michigan,  where  it  is  one  of  the  leading 
varieties. 

Silver  Mine.  The  Silver  Mine,  which  originated 
in  Ford  County,  Illinois,  about  1890,  has  a  cylindrical 
or  slightly  tapering  ear  with  a  tapering  tip,  and  meas- 
ures 8>4  to  9^  inches  in  length  and  6;^  to  7^4  inches 
in  circumference.  While  the  rows  are  in  distinct 
pairs,  as  in  other  varieties,  the  pairing  is  not  a^-^laijliL 
visible,  on  account  of  the  large  space  between  the  rows 
of  each  pair,  which  gives  the  ear  a  characteristic  ap- 
pearance.   The  usual  number  of  rows  is  18  to  20.   The 


2S 


THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 


kernels  are  rather  broad  and  not  very  compact  on  the 
ear.  The  indentation  is  medium  rough  to  rough.  'The 
color  is  a  cream  white.  The  cob  is  small  and  the 
per  cent  of  grain  fairly  large. 

This  variety  is  medium  early  in  maturing,  and  is 
best  adapted  to  soils  of  medium  fertility  through  the 
north  central  zone  and  the  northern  part  of  the  south 
central  zone.  Its  distribution  is  not  as  wide  as  the 
Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  Leaming,  or  Boone  County  White, 
being  grown  chiefly  in  the  section  mentioned  above. 


SILVER    KING    (WISCONSIN    NO.    7) 

One    of    the    most    widely   grown    and    highest    yielding    corns    in 
Wisconsin 


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CHAPTER  II 

THE  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  CORN 

Among  the  things  which  are  fundamental  to  the 
intelHgent  selection  of  corn  are  a  familiarity  with  the 
detailed  characteristics  of  the  ear  and  grain  and  a 
knowledge  as  to  the  significance  of  each. 

One  should  become  so  thoroughly  familiar  with 
every  characteristic  of  the  ear  as  to  be  able  to  recog- 
nize at  a  glance  the  strength  or  weakness  of  each.  He 
must  be  able  to  see  the  shallow  grain,  the  space  be- 
tween grains  or  the  impurity  of  breeding  as  indicated 
by  the  color;  he  must  see  the  uniformity  in  type  or 
the  lack  of  it  and  the  conformity  to  the  standard  of 
the  variety  or  type ;  he  must  know  the  significance 
of  the  tapering  grain  and  know  where  to  look  further 
for  the  indications  of  the  same  weakness ;  he  must 
have  a  standard  in  mind  in  utility  points  and  have 
reasons  for  the  same;  and  he  must  know  in  general 
what  types  are  best  suited  to  his  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions. 

In  comparison  sheets  A  and  B  are  given  a  list  of 
the  more  important  characteristics,  arranged  so  as  to 
show  the  significance  of  each.  A  careful  perusal  of 
this  list  and  practice  work  in  comparing  ears  by  these 
sheets  will  be  of  value  to  the  beginner  as  fundamental 
to  the  selection  of  ears  or  samples. 

34 


THE   JUDGING   AND    SELECTION   OF    CORN  35 

HOW  TO  STUDY  THE  CHARACTERISTICS 
OF  CORN 

Using  Comparison  Sheet  "A."  ^  Turn  to  pages  41  to 
64  and  read  what  is  said  in  general  in  regard  to  study 
of  characteristics,  and  pages  17  to  32  for  description  of 
the  particular  variety.  Select  two  good  ears  of  some- 
what similar  type  and  mark  one  of  them  "A"  and  the 
other  ''B."  Use  the  terms  slight,  medium  and  marked, 
to  express  the  differences  in  the  several  points ;  for 
instance,  if  ear  "A"  has  a  slightly  better  shape  than 
ear  *'B,"  the  term  ''slight"  should  be  marked  in  the 
first  column  and  the  second  column  left  blank  opposite 
shape  of  ear,  but  if  ear  "B"  is  better,  the  descriptive 
word  is  placed  in  the  second  column  and  the  first 
column  is  left  blank.  If  the  ear  ''A"  is  much  better 
in  size  of  ear,  the  term  ''marked"  is  written  in  the 
first  column  opposite  size  of  ear;  if  the  difference  is 
only  an  average  one,  the  term  "medium"  is  used.  The 
third  column,  under  remarks,  may  be  used  for  indi- 
cating any  differences  not  expressed  in  the  other  two 

1  How  TO  Prepare  Exhibits  for  Judging. — The  usual  num- 
ber of  ears  in  a  sample,  either  in  class-room  or  a  corn 
show,  is  10.  This  is  about  as  small  a  sample  as  will  give  a 
good  idea  of  the  type,  and  a  much  larger  one  would  be 
cumbersome  to  handle  and  difficult  to  summarize  and  carry 
in  mind.  A  sample  of  five  ears  is  sufficiently  large  for 
class-room  work  in  which  the  comparison  is  made  between 
ears  rather  than  samples.  The  first  exercise,  that  of  com- 
parison sheet  A,  requires  only  two  ears.  Each  ear  should 
be  identified  by  a  small  tag  attached  to  the  ear.  The  sam- 
ples should  be  numbered  and  the  ears  lettered,  the  number 
and  letters  both  appearing  on  each  tag,  so  that  any  ear 
which  becomes  misplaced  may  be  returned  to  its  original 
sample. 


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CO 

THE   JUDGING   AND    SELECTION   OF    CORN  39 

columns.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  characteristics  are 
classified  under  the  general  heads,  "type  or  breed  char- 
acteristics" and  "general  quality  regardless  of  variety 
or  type,"  and  that  each  of  these  are  divided  and  sub- 


These  ten  ears  which  were  awarded  first  premium  at  the  National  Corn 
Exposition,  1908,  show  uniformity  in  size,  shape,  color,  indenta- 
tion, etc.  The  type  is  well  fixed,  and  the  characteristics  will  be 
transmitted  to  their  offspring  with  considerable  certainty. 

divided  into  several  qualities.  The  qualities  mentioned 
in  the  general  heads  should  not  be  studied  until  all  the 
characteristics  under  these  heads  have  been  considered, 
when  space  wall  be  found  provided  for  making  these 
summaries.  The  judging  of  the  total  qualities  should 
always  be  done  by  comparing  the  ears  rather  than  by 
summarizing  the  results  on  the  sheet. 

In  this  and  the  following  exercises  the  student  is 
encouraged  to  depend  largely  upon  his  own  judgment. 
Some  hints  are  given  in  the  study  of  characteristics 
and  description  of  varieties  as  to  what  an  ideal  type 
should  be,  and  these  should  be  studied  carefull\-, 
but  in  order  to  get  the  most  out  of  the  course,  the 
student  must  learn  to  ask  and  answer  questions  for 
himself. 


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THE    JUDGING    AND    SELECTION   OF    CORN  4 1 

CHARACTERISTICS  AS  TO  TYPE  OR  BREED 

The  shape  of  the  ear  depends  upon  (i)  the  pro- 
portion of  length  to  ci renin ference.  In  normal-sized 
or  large  ears  the  circumference  should  be  about  ^  to 
4/5  the  length,  but  in  very  small  ears  the  circumfer- 
ence will  be  found  to  exceed  4/5  the  length.  These 
proportions  are  desirable  because  they  are  the  normal 
ones  and  nothing  can  be  gained,  and  perhaps  much 
lost,  by  an  attempt  to  change  the  standard;  (2)  the 
lines  of  the  ear — which  should  be  straight  and  curve 
out  nicely  at  butt  and  tip  of  ear;  ears  whose  lines 
are  not  straight  usually  have  more  or  less  irregular 
kernels;  (3)  the  uniformity  in  size  from  butt  to  tip. 
While  experimental  data  on  this  point  is  inconclusive, 
the  greater  uniformity  of  grains  in  the  cylindrical  or 
slightly  tapering  ear  is  sufficient  to  justify  its  prefer- 
ence over  the  very  tapering  ear.  Ears  with  reversed 
taper  are  abnormal  and  not  to  be  desired. 

The  size  of  ear  is  determined  by  (i)  the  length — 
which  should  be  measured  from  butt  to  extreme  tip 
of  cob,  as  this  indicates  the  true  tendency  of  the  strain 
toward  length  better  than  the  length  of  ear  to  which 
the  grain  extends;  (2)  the  circumference — which  is 
usually  measured  at  one-third  the  distance  from  butt 
to  tip. 

The  size  of  ear  is  of  importance  as  an  indication  as 
to  its  adaptability  to  soil  and  climatic  conditions. 
Large-eared  varieties  will  produce  the  maximum  yield 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  corn  belt,  while  small- 
eared  varieties  must  be  grown  in  the  north.  Larger- 
eared  varieties  may  be  grown  on  fertile  soil  under  fa- 
vorable conditions  than  on  soils  of  medium  or  poor  fer- 
tility, or  with  too  light  a  rainfall,  or  other  unfavorable 


42  THE   STUDY    OF    CORN 

conditions.  It  is  impossible  to  set  a  definite  standard 
for  length  and  circnmference  for  all  the  conditions  over 
any  large  section,  but  the  size  of  ear  will  depend 
upon  local  conditions  and  can  only  be  determined  by 
one  familiar  with  those  conditions  and  with  the  par- 
ticular variety  of  corn.  The  measurements  given  in  the 
tabular  description  of  varieties — pages  29  to  32 — are  of 
value  mainly  as  showing  the  average  dimensions  of 
the  respective  varieties  for  the  several  zones. 

The  indentation  in  dent  corn  is  of  value  chiefly 
(i)  as  an  indication  as  to  its  adaptability  and  length 
of  season.  Usually  the  rough  or  deeply  indented  types 
require  a  long  season  and  favorable  conditions,  while 
the  smooth  types  will  mature  in  a  shorter  season  and 
will  grow  under  less  favorable  conditions;  (2)  be- 
cause of  its  corelation  to  other  qualities.  Ears  that 
are  fairly  rough  usually  have  a  large  circumference 
in  proportion  to  their  length,  a  large  number  of  rows 
and  narrow  kernel,  and  small  space  between  rows, 
and  a  deep  grain.  Smooth  ears  are  apt  to  be  long  and 
slender,  with  a  small  number  of  rows  and  broad  kernel 
with  wide  spaces  between  the  rows,  and  shallow  grains. 
A  medium  type,  or  a  type  approaching  the  former,  is 
to  be  preferred  over  the  latter  in  the  central  and  south- 
ern zones,  though  a  somewhat  smoother  type  is  best 
adapted  to  the  northern  zone. 

The  natural  color  of  ear.  By  natural  color  of  ear 
is  meant  the  color  of  the  variety  when  properly  ma- 
tured and  not  bleached  or  discolored  by  exposure  to 
the  weather. 

The  most  common  colors  in  dent  and  flint  corn  are 
white  and  yellow,  of  which  there  are  many  shades. 
In  these  the  color  is  located  in  the  horny  endosperm 


44 


THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 


and  possibly  the  aleurone  layer.  In  the  blue  corn 
of  the  squaw  type  and  in  the  blue,  purple  and  black 
corns  of  the  soft  and  sweet  types  the  color  is  in  the 
aleurone  layer.  In  the  red  and  calico  corns  the  color 
is  located  in  the  hull. 

If  the  natural  color  of  the  sample  is  not  character- 
istic of  the  variety  or  if  the  grains  vary  in  color,  it  is 


The  two  ears  at  the  extreme  left  are  of  the  bloody  butcher  type ;  the 
next  two  are  mixed  squaw  corn ;  the  next  a  couple  of  yellow 
ears  with  a  decided  tin^e  of  red  on  the  sides  of  the  grains  ;  and 
the  fourth  pair  is  a  type  of  yellow  white  cap  corn.  None  of 
these  corns  should  be  grown,  as  they  have  no  advantages  over 
the  pure  white  and  yellow  corns  as  shown  at  the  right,  and  have 
the  disadvantages  of  grading  as  mixed  corn  on  the  market,  and 
of  mixing  corns  of  pure  color  if  grown  on  the  farm. 

an  indication  of  impurity  of  breeding.  When  yellow 
varieties  are  fertilized  by  pollen  from  white  corn,  the 
mixture  is  shown  by  the  white  or  light  colored  caps, 
but  when  white  varieties  are  fertilized  by  yellow  corn, 
the  mixture  is  shown  on  the  sides  of  the  grains.  The 
m'::ture  of  blue  corn  with  corn  of  other  colors  is 
shown  both  at  the  caps  and  on  the  sides  of  the  grains. 
In  the  breeding-  of  corn,  red  appears  to  be  a  domi- 
nant characteristic.  When  red  corn  is  crossed  with 
white,  shades  between  the  red  and  white  are  not  pro- 
duced and  the  mixture  can  only  be  identified  by  the 
white  grains  which  may  be  found  in  the  red  or  the 
red  in  the  white,  since  the  endosperm  in  both  types 
is  white.     When  red   and  vellow   corns  are  crossed. 


?i^^^ 


4^  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

the  hybrids  may  be  identified  as  above,  and,  further, 
by  cutting  open  the  grains  and  observing  the  color 
of  the  horny  endosperm. 

Number  of  rows  and  size  of  kernel.  This  is  chiefly 
a  type  or  breed  characteristic.  Ears  that  have  too 
small  a  number  of  rows  or  too  wide  a  kernel,  or  those 
with  too  many  rows  and  too  narrow  a  grain,  show 
lack  of  type  and  purity  of  breeding. 

Shape  of  grain  as  viewed  in  ear.  This  refers  to  the 
size  of  grain  in  cross  section,  or  the  shape  of  the  caps 
as  viewed  in  ear.  Each  variety  has  a  characteristic 
shape  of  grain ;  for  instance,  the  grain  of  the  Reid's 
corn  is  nearly  square,  and  any  non-conformity  to  this 
shape  indicates  lack  of  type. 


GENERAL  QUALITIES  REGARDLESS  OF  VARIETY 
OR  TYPE 

(A)  Amount  of  grain  and  proportion  of  grain  to 

cob  depends  upon  the  following  characteristics : 

(1)  The  weight  of  ear.  As  three-fourths  or  more 
of  the  weight  of  an  ear  is  in  the  grain,  an  ear  which 
is  light  in  weight  cannot  produce  much  grain.  This 
is  one  of  the  best  means  of  selecting  high-yielding 
corn ;  and  the  ears  of  light  weight  should  not  siniply 
be  discarded,  but  those  of  very  heavy,  dry  weight  for 
their  size  should  be  selected. 

(2)  Depth  of  kernels  in  proportion  to  size  of  ear. 
Shallow-grained  ears  produce  little  corn,  and  are  con- 
sidered an  undesirable  type  for  planting.  Recent  ex- 
periments conducted  in  several  states  indicate,  though 
they  probably  do  not  prove,  that  ears  of  extremely 
high  per  cent  of  grain  are  no  better,  if  they  are  as 


48  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

good,  as  ears  with  medium  deep  grain  and  with  a 
medium  high  per  cent  of  corn. 

(3)  Space  between  grains.  ( i )  At  tips,  should  be 
small,  indicating  well-developed  kernels.  Where  the 
space  at  tips  is  large,  the  grains  are  not  well  ma- 
tured, are  light  in  weight  and  poor  in  composition; 
(2)  at  crowns,  should  be  medium  narrow  and  may  be 
fairly  deep.  Some  of  the  early  standards  in  corn 
judging  called  for  an  extremely  narrow  space  between 
crowns,  but  it  has  been  observed  in  recent  years  that 
these  ears  do  not  dry  out  well  and  are  apt  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  wide  space  at  the  cob,  light  weight  and 
poor  maturity. 

(4)  Filling  out  of  butts  and  tips  of  ears.  The 
butts  and  tips  should  be  fairly  well  filled  out,  as  other- 
wise an  unnecessary  amount  of  cob  is  produced.  The 
complete  capping  over  of  tips  is  of  little  importance. 
The  size  of  ear  and  its  adaptability  are  of  much  more 
importance  than  the  capping  over  of  tip,  and  ears  that 
are  too  small  should  not  be  selected  simply  because 
they  are  completely  filled  out  at  the  tip.  Ears  that  are 
too  large  and  too  long,  with  the  cob  projecting  some 
distance,  are  likewise  undesirable. 

(B)  Maturity  and  seed  conditions  are  of  first  im- 
portance in  the  study  of  corn,  and  may  be  judged  by 
the  following  characteristics : 

(1)  Hardness  and  solidness  of  grain  and  cob. 
Take  the  ear  in  both  hands  and  twist  it  gently,  press 
on  the  grains  to  see  if  they  can  be  pressed  in.  No- 
tice if  the  cob  is  hard  and  solid.  If  the  grain  is  soft 
and  loose  on  the  cob,  it  is  an  indication  that  it  is 
not  fully  and  normally  developed. 

(2)  Dryness  of  grain  and  cob.     Ears  that  are  wet 


50  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

and  sappy  are  generally  immature.  This  type  of  ear, 
when  dried  out  later  in  the  season,  has  a  peculiar 
sticky  feeling  to  the  hand,  which  may  best  be  under- 
stood by  a  comparison  of  this  type  of  ear  with  those 
that  are  hard  and  well  matured. 


BROWN-DUVAL  TESTER 

For  determining  moisture  content  of  grain,  100  grams  of  grain  are 
heated  in  oil  to  a  temperature  of  190°  C.  This  drives  off  the 
moisture  in  the  grain,  and  it  is  condensed  in  passing  through 
the  condenser  in  the  rear  part  of  the  apparatus  and  collected  in 
the  graduates  below. 

(3)  Weight  of  ear  in  proportion  to  size.    The  ear 

which  is  light  in  weight  in  proportion  to  its  size  is 
not  normally  matured,  and  its  vitality  is  apt  not  to  be 
of  the  best. 

(4)  Color  of  ear  and  grains,  (i)  Due  to  imma- 
turity. A  dull,  pale,  golden  yellow,  often  with  a  fleck 
of  white  on  the  grain  in  the  yellow  corn,  and  a  dull 


{      5-  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

white  in  the  white  corn,  are  indicative  of  immaturity. 
Well-matured  corn  should  be  bright  and  have  a  luster ; 
(2)  due  to  moisture  or  weather  conditions.  Ears  that 
have  laid  upon  the  ground  and  become  wet  or  have 
been  exposed  to  the  weather,  have  a  dull  color  or 
bleached  appearance.  The  color  of  the  cob  should  be 
bright. 


The  first  ear  at  the  left  is  a  deep  grained  type,  although  the  grains  at 
the  butt  and  tip  are  not  as  deep  as  those  in  the  middle  of  the  ear, 
indicating  the  necessity  of  studying  grains  in  different  parts  of 
the  ear.  The  second  ear  has  a  very  shallow  grain  and  small  per 
cent  of  grain  to  cob.  The  third  ear  has  a  compact  grain,  while 
in  the  fourth  the  kernels  are  pointed  and  there  is  a  large  space 
between  them  next  to  the  c  b. 

(5)  Color  of  germs.  The  color  of  the  germ  should 
be  a  greenish-yellow  or  the  color  of  a  healthy  growing 
shoot  before  its  appearance  above  ground.  Pale  or 
light-colored    germs    commonly    found    in    immatured 


^^ —       54  THB   STUDY   OF    CORN 

ears  and  dark-colored  germs  are  apt  to  be  of  low 
vitality  and  produce  plants  of  little  vigor.  Black  or 
dark-brown  germs  have  been  frosted  when  they  con- 
tained too  much  water,  or  have  rotted  and  will  fail  to 
germinate.  Germs  that  sparkle  when  cut  in  two  con- 
tain a  large  per  cent  of  moisture  and  the  vitality  is 
apt  to  be  destroyed  if  they  are  subjected  to  freezing 
weather  when  in  this  condition. 

(6)  Blisters,  or  the  wrinkling  of  the  seed  coat,  are 
caused  by  excessive  moisture,  and  are  indicative  of 
the  unfavorable  conditions  under  which  the  corn  has 
matured  or  been  stored. 

(7)  Cracking  of  grains.  The  appearance  of  cracks 
in  the  sides  of  grains  is  thought  to  be  the  result  of 
excessive  moisture,  perhaps  accompanied  by  freezing 
weather.  Such  grains  will  usually  fail  to  germinate 
and  should  never  be  planted. 

(8)  Shape  of  grains  at  tip.  Grains  that  are  pointed 
at  the  tip  have  small  germs  and  are  apt  to  be  of  low 
vitality.  Notice  both  the  thickness  and  width.  In 
this  type  of  grain  the  scales  of  the  cob  often  adhere 
to  the  grain,  which  is  also  an  indication  of  immaturity. 

(9)  Size  of  grains.  Normal-sized  or  large  grains 
should  have  good  germs  with  plenty  of  food  stored  in 
the  endosperm  surrounding  the  germ,  but  very  small, 
thin  or  papery  grains  have  small  germs  and  a  small 
endosperm  and  are  apt  to  have  little  vitality. 

(10)  Size  of  germs.  The  germ  is  the  embryonic 
plant,  and  if  abnormally  small  is  apt  to  produce  a 
plant  of  little  vigor.  The  size  of  germ  may  be  esti- 
mated by  observing  the  length  and  width  in  the  entire 
kernel  and  the  thickness  in  the  lengthwise  and  cross 
sections. 


If  if  II  ft 


ft  If  II  II 


DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF   KERNELS 

The  first  pair  of  kernels  at  the  left  in  the  upper  row  and  the  last  pair 
in  the  second  row  are  desirable  grains.  The  second  pair  in  the 
upper  row  are  somewhat  pointed  and  have  small  germs;  the  third 
pair  are  too  narrow  at  the  crown,  and  the  fourth  pair  too  pointed 
at  the  tip.  The  first  pair  in  the  second  row  are  too  broad  and 
rounded;  the  second  pair  narrow  and  thin,  and  the  third  pair  are 
of  irregular  shape. 


g 

9  9  ff  If 


TYPES    OF    KERNELS    INDICATING    IMMATURITY    AND    POOR 

SEED   CONDITION 

In  the  upper  row  the  first  pair  are  broken  off  at  the  tip;  in  the  second 
pair  the  cob  chaff  adheres  and  the  third  pair  are  rotten.  In  the 
bottom  row  the  first  pair  have  wrinkled  or  blistered  seed  coats, 
and  the  second  and  third  pairs  are  very  pointed  at  the  tii>. 


56  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

(11)  Freedom   from   mold   and   fungus   diseases. 

The  presence  of  these  diseases  is  most  frequently  ob- 
served about  the  cob  and  between  the  grains,  and 
indicates  that  the  ear  has  been  stored  under  unfavor- 
able conditions  such  as  are  liable  to  rot  or  otherwise 
destroy  the  life  of  the  germ. 

(12)  Freedom  from  breaking  off  of  tip  caps. 
This  is  an  abnormal  condition  which,  it  is  claimed,  more 
or  less  exposes  the  germ,  making  it  more  liable  to 
rot  if  the  weather  or  drainage  conditions  are  unfavor- 
able. In  the  germination-box  these  grains  frequently 
grow  and  produce  vigorous  stalks.  If  the  grain  breaks 
off  above  the  tip  cap  so  as  to  break  the  germ  in  two, 
its  germinating  qualities  are  destroyed. 

(13)  Freedom  from  attack  of  insects  and  other 
injury.  Among  the  most  common  of  the  insects  which 
attack  corn  in  the  ear  are  the  ear  worm,  which  feeds 
on  the  ear  beneath  the  husks,  and  the  angoumois  grain 
moth,  which  attacks  the  stored  grain.  While  the  ear 
worm  does  considerable  damage  to  corn,  the  injury  is 
plainly  visible  on  the  ear  and  the  injured  grains  may 
be  discarded,  when  the  remaining  grains  will  be  as 
valuable  for  planting  as  though  the  ear  had  not  been 
injured.  Little  importance  should  therefore  be  given 
to  slight  attacks  of  this  insect.  The  angoumois  grain 
moth  is  a  dusty-winged  moth  about  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  in  length,  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  spaces 
between  the  rows ;  when  the  larvae  or  worm  is  hatched 
it  starts  at  the  tip  of  the  grain  and  eats  its  way  toward 
the  crown,  and  when  almost  to  the  surface  it  pupates. 
A  few  days  later  the  adult  moth  pushes  the  covering 
cap  off  and  emerges.  The  work  of  these  insects  may 
be  recognized  by  the  holes,  about  as  big  as  a  pin,  which 


•i.g| 

rt    O    ™ 

SI- 


111 

•s  = 

oj    '^ 


■5  V 


58  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

they  leave  on  the  crown  or  sides  of  the  kernel.  Corn 
which  has  been  attacked  by  these  insects  should  be 
scored  heavily,  as  the  germinating  qualities  of  the  de- 
fective kernels  have  been  destroyed  or  seriously  af- 
fected, and  there  is  little  certainty  as  to  the  per  cent 
of  grains  affected.  The  presence  of  these  insects  in- 
dicates, though  it  does  not  prove,  that  the  corn  is  not 
of  the  current  season's  growth. 

Other  injuries,  such  as  broken  grains,  if  they  do  not 
affect  the  value  of  the  grain  for  planting  purposes,  or 
if  they  affect  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  grain,  should 
not  be  considered  of  much  importance. 

Of  the  above  qualities,  the  first  four  and  the  eighth 
may  be  considered  as  fairly  sure  indications  as  to 
the  maturity.  Aside  from  the  black  germs  and  the 
serious  cracking  of  grains  or  the  destruction  of  the 
germ,  these  qualities  must  not  be  considered  as  posi- 
tive evidence  as  to  whether  corn  will  germinate,  but 
rather  as  an  indication  as  to  the  life  history  of  the 
plant  and  the  probability  as  to  whether  its  seeds  will 
grow  or  produce  vigorous  plants.  The  best  means  of 
determining  the  germinating  qualities  is  the  germi- 
nation  test,  which  is  discussed  on  page  82. 

(C)  Uniformity  of  grains.  The  grains  should  be 
uniform  in  size  and  shape,  so  that  an  even  distribution 
may  be  had  from  the  planter.  Observe  whether  the 
grains  are  uniform  in  size  from  butt  to  tip,  whether 
the  rows  are  straight,  and  whether  there  are  any 
grains  of  irregular  shape.  Also  notice  whether  the 
grains  in  the  several  ears  of  an  exhibit  are  uniform  in 
size  and  shape. 

(D)  Composition.  Dr.  C.  G.  Hopkins  and  his  as- 
sistants at  the  Illinois  experiment  station,  who  have 


THIS    ILLUSTRATION    SHOWS    SOME   OF    THE    PARTS    OF 
THE    KERNEL 

The  top  row  of  grains  are  from  a  dent  ear  whose  kernels  have  large 
germs  and  large  horny  parts,  and  are  relatively  rich  in  protein 
and  oil ;  the  second  row  of  kernels  has  small  germs  and  are 
starchy  and  low  in  protein  and  oil  content ;  the  third  row  shows 
the  structure  of  a  kernel  of  Flint  Corn;  the  fourth  that  of  the 
Brazilian  Flour  Corn,  which  is  of  the  soft  corn  type;  while  the 
bottom  row  shows  the  structure  of  Sweet  Corn.  (For  discussion 
of  these  types  see  pages  11  to  16.) 


6o  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

made  a  careful  study  of  the  composition  of  the  corn 
kernel,  divide  the  grain  into  six  parts,  namely,  tip 
cap,  hull,  horny  gluten,  horny  starch,  white  starch 
and  germ,  the  definition  and  composition  of  which  are 
given  below. 

The  tip  cap  is  a  small  cap  covering  the  tip  of  the 
kernel  and  acting  as  a  protection  to  the  germ.  It 
occasionally  remains  attached  to  the  cob  and  leaves  the 
end  of  the  germ  exposed.  It  may  be  readily  removed 
by  lifting  it  with  a  knife.  Its  composition  resembles 
that  of  the  cob. 

The  hull  is  the  thin  outer  covering  of  the  kernel, 
which  is  made  up  of  several  coats  or  layers  of  cells 
which  are  closely  united  in  the  matured  grain.  It  may 
readily  be  removed  with  a  knife  after  the  grain  has 
been  soaked  in  water  a  few  minutes.  It  consists 
largely  of  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  crude  fiber, 
which  is  of  little  feeding  value. 

The  horny  gluten  or  the  aleurone  layer  is  an  inner 
covering  of  the  grain,  somewhat  thicker  than  the  hull. 
This  part  may  be  seen  as  the  thin  yellow  covering 
over  the  crown  of  yellow  kernels  after  the  hull  has 
been  removed ;  that  is,  it  lies  between  the  white  starch 
and  the  hull.  On  the  sides  of  the  grain  where  it  ad- 
joins the  horny  starch,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  latter  part.  It  is  the  richest  in  protein  of 
any  part  of  the  grain,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
tables. 

The  horny  starch  is  located  mainly  at  the  edges  of 
the  grain  and  on  the  side  opposite  the  germ.  With 
the  horny  gluten  it  makes  up  the  hard  horny  part 
of  the  grain.  It  is  composed  largely  of  carbohydrates, 
but  is  richer  in  protein  than  the  white  starchy  part. 


THE   JUDGING   AND   SELECTION   OF    CORN 


6l 


The  white  starch  occupies  the  crown  end  of  the 
kernel  and  Hes  back  of  the  germ  and  at  the  tip  end 
of  the  kernel,  the  crown  and  tip  starch  usually  being 
connected  by  a  thin  la\er  of  white  starch  through  the 
middle  of  the  kernel.  The  white  starch  analyzes  the 
highest  in  carbohydrates  and  the  lowest  in  protein 
and  oil  of  any  of  the  four  main  parts  of  the  grain, 
and  is  therefore  the  poorest  in  feeding  value. 

The  germ  is  the  embryonic  plant  and  lies  on  the 
side  of  the  grain  toward  the  tip  of  the  ear,  usually 
extending  from  the  tip  of  grain  ^  to  2/^  the  length 
of  the  kernel.  By  carefully  making  a  lengthwise  section 
with  a  knife,  the  embryonic  stem  pointing  toward  the 
crown  and  the  embryonic  root  pointing  toward  the  tip 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  remaining  portion. 

The  composition  of  these  parts  is  given  in  the  table 
below : 


*  TABLE  V— Showing  Analysis  of  the  Parts  of  Kernels 
— (Medium  Protein  Ear) 


Per  cent 
of  whole 

Composition   of  Parts 

Names 

OF 

Parts 

Protein 
Per  cent 

2 

Ash 
Per  cent 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
Per  cent 

1.46 

5.93 

5.12 

32.80 

11.85 

5.91 

11.53 

25.40 

8.83 

3.96 

22.50 

10.20 

7.92 

7.68 

19.80 

11.10 

10.95 

2.30 
.89 

6.99 

.24 

.17 

.39 

34.84 

1.23 

4.33 

1.11 
.79 

1.72 
.24 
.24 
.31 

9.90 
.57 

1.55 

87  76 

Hulls  

94  Z6 

Horny  gluten 

Horny   starch 

Crown    starch 

Tip    starch 

69.09 
89.32 
91.67 
91  6^ 

35  46 

Mixed   waste 

Whole  corn 

87.10 
83.17 

From  Bulletin  No.  87,   Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


62 


THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 


*  TABLE  VI— Showing  Distribution  of  Material  in  100  lbs. 
of  Corn — (Medium  Protein  Ear) 


Names 

OF 

Parts 

Is 

1  c 

lo2 

No.  of  lbs. 
Ash  in 
100  lbs.  Corn 
{by  t^arts) 

No.  of  lbs. 
Carbohydrates 
in  100  lbs.  Corn 

Tip    caps 

1.46 

5.93 

8.51 

47.08 

17.01 

8.48 

11.53 

100.00 

.13 

.23 

1.89 

4.80 

1.35 

.65 

2.28 

11.33 

10.95 

.03 

.05 

.59 

.11 

.03 

.03 

4.02 

4.86 

4.33 

.02 

.05 

.15 

.11 

.04 

.03 

1.14 

1.54 

1.55 

1.28 

5.60 

5.88 

42.05 

15.59 

7.77 

4.09 

82.26 

83.17 

Hulls    

Horny  gluten 

Horny    starch 

Crown    starch 

Tip    starch 

Germs   

Total 

Whole  corn 

*  TABLE  Vll—Showing  Analysis  of  Parts  of  Kernels  Me- 
dium  Protein  Ear — (Compiled  from  Table  V) 


Composition  of  Parts 

Names 

OF 

Parts 

^1 

2~ 

Tip    caps 

Hulls    

1.46 

5.93 

37.92 

17.76 

11.53 

8.83 

3.96 

11.86 

7.84 

19.80 

10.95 

2.30 
-.89 
1.15 
.24 
34.84 
4.33 

1.10 

.79 

.44 

.26 

9.90 

1.55 

87.76 
94.36 

Horny  part 

White    part 

Germ 

89.22 
91.65 
35  46 

Whole  corn 

83.17 

It  will  be  seen  from  a  study  of  Table  VII  that  the 
germ  contains  19.80  per  cent  protein  and  34.84  per 
cent  oil,  the  horny  or  hard  part  of  the  kernel  11.86 
per   cent   protein    and    1.15    per   cent    oil,    while    the 


From  Bulletin  No.  87,  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


THE   JUDGING    AND    SELECTION   OF    CORN  63 

white,  soft  portion  contains  only  7.84  per  cent  protein 
and  .24  per  cent  oil.  Those  grains,  therefore,  which 
have  a  large  horny  portion  and  a  large  germ  are  rela- 
tively rich  in  protein,  while  those  having  large  germs 
are  relatively  rich  in  oil. 

The  relative  size  of  the  several  parts  and  therefore 
the  approximate  composition  of  the  grain  may  be  de- 
termined by  mechanical  examination.  Notice  the 
length  and  width  of  germ  before  cutting  the  kernel, 
and  then  cut  through  the  grain  lengthwise  and  cross- 
wise to  determine  the  thickness  of  germ  and  the 
amount  of  horny  endosperm.  The  relative  size  of 
these  parts  will  be  found  to  vary  somewhat  in  the 
grains  of  the  same  ear,  and  several  grains  as  repre- 
sentative of  each  ear  should  be  examined  and  com- 
pared with  those  from  other  ears. 

(E)  The  shank  should  be  large  enough  to  support 
the  ear,  the  small  shank  being  responsible  for  a  large 
per  cent  of  the  poorly  developed  ears  in  certain  va- 
rieties of  corn.  On  the  other  hand,  the  shank  should 
not  be  unnecessarily  large  so  as  to  make  the  corn  diffi- 
cult to  husk.  For  normal-sized  ears  a  shank  5-8  inch 
in  diameter  appears  to  be  about  right. 

Comparison  of  Characteristics  of  Ears,  Using 
Comparison  Sheet  "B,"  select  five  good  ears  of 
somewhat  similar  type  and  designate  by  letters. 
Rank  the  ears  in  each  of  the  qualities  mentioned 
in  the  list  and  mark  the  order  in  the  columns  to  the 
right.  For  instance,  starting  with  shape  of  ear,  pick 
out  the  ear  which  has  the  best  shape  and  mark  the 
letter  which  is  used  to  designate  it  in  the  first  column, 
the  second  best  in  the  second  column,  etc.,  paying  no 
attention  whatever  to  the  other  characteristics.    After 


64  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

completing  the  study  of  shape  of  ear,  take  up  the 
next  point — size  of  ear,  and  so  on.  Do  not  consider 
those  quaHties  that  are  subdivided,  that  is  the  gen- 
eral headings  in  the  comparison  sheet,  but  the  sepa- 
rate divisions,  and  afterward  the  summaries  of  these 
under  the  totals. 

RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  THE  CHARACTERISTICS 
OF  CORN  1 

Adaptability.  The  adaptability  of  any  variety  or 
selection  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  under 
which  it  is  to  be  grown  is  of  prime  importance.  Corns 
which  are  introduced  from  a  distant  locality  where  the 
conditions  are  radically  different  cannot  be  expected 
as  a  usual  thing  to  do  well  the  first  few  years  after 
introduction  and  should  not  be  planted  in  a  field  way 
until  after  they  have  been  tested  for  two  or  more 
years  in  small  plots.  Even  varieties  that  have  been 
grown  in  the  locality  for  years  are  frequently  not 
adapted  to  the  local  conditions,  in  being  too  late  or 
too  early  a  type,  or  unsuited  to  the  soil. 

At  the  present  status  of  corn  production  in  most  of 
the  corn-growing  sections  of  the  United  States,  the 
adaptability  should  take  first  rank  as  to  the  importance 

1  After  the  student  has  become  familiar  with  the  several 
characteristics  of  corn  and  their  corelation  and  the  signifi- 
cance of  each,  he  must  know  something  as  to  the  relative 
importance  of  these  several  qualities  before  he  can  intelli- 
gently judge  between  individual  ears  as  units.  In  the 
laboratory  this  information  may  best  be  gained  through 
lectures  and  private  instruction,  but  to  the  student  who  is 
working  without  a  competent  instructor,  the  score-cards 
nnd  the  descriptive  matter  on  the  relative  value  of  charac- 
teristics of  corn  will  be  a  valuable  aid. 


THE   JUDGING   AND    SELECTION   OF    CORN  65 

of  the  several  qualities,  although,  as  already  intimated, 
frequent  exception  will  be  found  in  the  comparison 
of  certain  samples. 

The  best  means  of  judging  the  adaptability  between 
varieties  or  selections  is  by  comparative  field  tests. 
The  adaptability  may  best  be  judged  in  the  ear  by  the 
size  of  ear  in  relation  to  length  of  season  and  by 
dryness  and  hardness  of  ear ;  weight  of  ear ;  bright- 
ness of  color  and  other  qualities  indicative  of  its 
maturity. 

Seed  Condition.  The  seed  condition,  which  includes 
the  germination  of  the  seed  and  the  vigor  of  the  re- 
sulting plant,  which  depends  largely  upon  the  ma- 
turity of  the  seed,  is  probably  second  in  importance 

The  student  is  frequently  inclined  to  ask  which  is  the 
more  important  of  two  minor  characteristics,  when  he 
could  answer  the  question  for  himself  by  considering  the 
significance  of  the  deficiencies  at  hand  and  looking  for 
other  qualities,  which,  together,  would  show  one  ear  the 
better  in  more  important  characteristics,  such  as  adapta- 
bility, seed  condition,  type,  etc. 

For  instance,  instead  of  attempting  to  decide  whether 
a  slight  deficiency  in  shape  of  kernel  is  more  objectionable 
than  a  slight  mixture  in  color,  the  student  should  look  for 
other  indications  of  maturity  and  poor  seed  condition  and 
of  impurity  of  breeding.  Perhaps  in  the  one  ear,  besides 
the  deficiency  in  shape  of  grain,  we  may  find  a  slight  de- 
ficiency in  weight,  softness  of  grain  on  the  cob  and  the 
dull  color  of  the  immature  ear,  while  in  the  second  ear  we  may 
find  the  mixture  of  color  confined  to  a  few  grains  at  the 
tip,  which  were  fertilized  by  a  late  maturing  plant,  the 
color  of  the  remainder  of  the  grains  and  the  color  of  the 
cob,  and,  in  fact,  all  other  qualities  are  characteristic  of  the 
variety.  Little  difficulty  would  be  experienced  in  making 
a  choice  between  the  two  ears  after  this  study  had  been 
made. 


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68  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

to  adaptability.  Although  the  last  few  years  have 
seen  a  marked  improvement  in  this  respect,  a  large 
per  cent  of  the  corn  acreage  in  the  United  States  is 
still  planted  with  seed  of  poor  germinating  qualities, 
which  largely  accounts  for  the  poor  stand  and  the 
large  per  cent  of  unproductive  plants. 

In  studying  samples  of  very  low  germinating  quali- 
ties, the  seed  condition  may  frequently  be  of  first  im- 
portance ;  but  in  comparing  well-matured  and  well- 
preserved  samples,  it  may  be  found  of  very  little  im- 
portance. 

In  the  average  sample  the  best  indications  of  ma- 
turity are  hardness  and  dryness  of  ear,  weight  of  ear, 
color  of  ear,  shape  of  grains  at  tip  and  size  of  germs. 

Among  the  best  indications  as  to  the  seed  condi- 
tion due  to  storage  conditions  are  color  of  germs, 
color  of  ear,  blisters,  cracking  of  grains  and  freedom 
from  mold. 

Amount  of  Grain  and  Proportion  of  Grain  to  Cob 
as  Indicative  of  the  Yield.  This  quality  should  prob- 
ably be  given  third  importance  in  the  average  sample, 
but  it  may  take  a  much  higher  or  occasionally  a  lower 
rank  in  the  study  of  certain  samples. 

Many  corn  growers  fail  to  realize  that  the  large- 
cobbed,  shallow-grained  varieties  which  they  are  grow- 
ing and  which  perhaps  fill  up  the  crib  rapidly,  are 
small  producers  of  grain.  Perhaps  the  best  means  of 
judging  this  quality  is  the  dry  weight  of  the  ear. 
Other  valuable  points  to  be  considered  are  the  depth 
of  grains ;  spaces  between  rows  and  grains ;  and  the 
filling  of  butts  and  tips. 

Uniformity  and  Trueness  to  Type.  Of  value  in 
showing  the  purity  of  type  and  the  selection  and  breed- 


THE    JUDGING    AND    SELECTION    OF    CORN  69 

ing  which  the  strains  have  had.  While  mistakes  have 
doubtless  been  made  in  the  past  in  the  selection  of 
corn,  the  strain  or  variety  which  has  been  selected  to 
a  definite  type  will  almost  invariably  be  found  better 
if  adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown 
than  the  strain  wdiich  has  had  no  breeding  and  is  lack- 
ing in  type.  Its  importance  among  the  different  char- 
acteristics is  seldom  lower  than  fourth,  and  frequently 
higher. 

Uniformity  of  Grains.  While  the  uniformity  of 
grains  in  size  and  shape  w^as  of  comparatively  little 
importance  in  early  days  when  corn  was  planted  by 
hand  and  thinned  to  the  required  stand,  it  is  of  much 
importance  under  modern  methods  of  planting.  A 
missing  hill  or  a  missing  plant  here  or  there  may  ac- 
count for  a  loss  of  several  bushels  per  acre  in  the 
yield.  In  order  to  get  an  even  stand  and  the  proper 
thickness  of  stand,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  grade  of 
corn  which  is  fairly  even  in  size  and  shape  of  grain, 
and  it  is  important  not  only  to  make  as  even  a  grade 
as  possible,  by  the  use  of  the  grader,  but  to  seek  per- 
manent improvement  in  this  respect  by  selection  and 
breeding. 

Composition.  While  serious  objection  should  be 
made  to  corns  whose  kernels  are  very  starchy  and 
contain  small  germs  and  little  horny  endosperm,  the 
composition  in  the  average  sample  of  corn  is  of  minor 
importance  compared  to  the  qualities  mentioned 
above.  It  may  be  that  special  demands  will  in  the 
future  justify  the  breeding  of  corns  high  in  protein, 
oil  or  starch  content,  but,  under  the  present  conditions, 
it  is  thought  that  breeding  or  selection  to  change  the 
composition  has  little  practical  importance,  especially 


70 


THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 


if  this  should  be  accompanied  with  the  lowering  of 
the  yield  per  acre. 

Shank.  In  the  average  sample  of  corn  the  shank  is 
of  little  importance  as  compared  to  any  of  the  above 
qualities.  However,  in  a  few  varieties  the  very  small, 
long  shank  or  the  very  large  shank  is  responsible  for 
a  material  loss  in  the  yield  and  quality  of  product  or 
in  the  cost  of  harvesting. 

The  following  comparison  sheet  (pages  ^2  and  73), 
which  is  used  in  the  agricultural  extension  work  of  the 
Ohio  State  University,  gives  a  concise  statement  of  the 
more  important  points  to  be  considered  in  seed-corn 
selection,  and  will  be  found  to  be  of  value  to  the 
farmer  or  student  who  can  devote  but  little  time  to 
the  study  of  corn. 

For  explanation  of  the  several  qualities  mentioned 
see  discussion  of  the  same  points  elsewhere  in  this 
text. 

The  following  score-card  (pages  74  and  75),  which 
is  the  score-card  adopted  by  the  Ohio  State  University 
and  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  is  submitted  here 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  showing  approximately  the 
average  relative  value  of  the  more  important  points  to 
be  considered  in  the  judging  of  corn.  A  little  practise 
in  scoring  with  this  card  will  be  of  value  in  gaining 
familiarity  with  these  points  and  with  the  score-card 
system  of  judging.  The  score-card  may  be  used  for 
scoring  ten  ears  or  ten  samples  of  corn. 

Comparison  judging  of  ears  in  samples.  After, 
studying  several  samples  of  corn  by  use  of  comparison 
sheets  A  and  B,  the  student  should  be  familiar  with 
the  detailed  structure  of  an  ear  of  corn  and  be  able 
to  recognize  each  of  these  points,  their  importance  and, 


THE   JUDGING   AND    SELECTION   OF    CORN  7I 

their  strength  or  deficiencies  ahiiost  unconsciously  and 
without  foUowing  through  any  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  points.  The  next  step  and  the  most  important 
of  all  is  to  train  the  judgment  in  the  selection  of  ears 
as  units,  basing  this  selection  upon  an  analytical  and 
detailed  study  when  necessary.  Comparison  sheet 
D  has  been  prepared  for  recording  the  rank  of  ears 
in  the  samples.^ 

The  method  of  procedure  in  this  exercise  is  im- 
portant. The  student  as  he  begins  to  examine  a 
sample  is  able  to  see  each  ear  as  a  unit  and  make  a 
general  summary  of  its  qualities,  which  is  usually  ap- 
proximately correct.  After  a  careful  examination  has 
been  made  of  several  of  the  characteristics,  it  is  fre- 

1  This  exercise  will  be  found  to  be  one  of  the  best  means 
of  training  the  judgment  in  the  practical  selection  of  corn, 
and  much  time  should  be  devoted  to  it.  The  work 
should  be  varied  by  the  provision  of  samples  of  different 
varieties,  of  strains  representing  the  standard  of  different 
breeders,  and  samples  showing  the  types  adapted  to  dif- 
ferent soil  and  climatic  conditions. 

The  samples  should  be  judged  by  the  instructor  before 
the  laboratory  period  begins  and  built  up  in  such  a  way 
as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  correct  order  of  placing.  A 
part  of  the  laboratory  period  may  be  devoted  to  a  placing 
of  the  ears  in  the  samples,  when  the  correct  placings  are 
given  the  students  and  the  remainder  of  the  period  devoted 
to  a  review  of  the  work  already  done.  Or  the  instructor 
may  devote  a  part  of  the  time  to  a  general  discussion  of 
the  placing  of  certain  samples  and  the  reasons  for  the  same. 

In  placing  the  ears  in  the  samples  it  will  avoid  much 
confusion  and  add  interest  to  the  work  to  allow  a  definite 
period  for  the  placing  of^  each  sample,  requiring  the  stu- 
dents to  pass  around  the  table  in  regular  order.  The  gra- 
ding iof  papers  may  be  facilitated  by  the  use  of  grade  sheet 
found  on- page  85.  •      .         ,- 


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74  THE   STUDY   OF   CORN 

EXPLANATION  OF  SCORE-CARD 
1.  Adaptability 

Indicated  by  the  size  and  maturity  of  ear.  The  size  of  ear  should  de- 
pend largely  upon  location  (latitude),  soil,  rainfall  and  climatic  condi- 
tions. Corn  should  be  large  and  late  enough  in  maturing  to  utilize 
practically  all  of  the  growing  season,  but  it  should  not  be  so  large  and 
late  a  type  as  to  fail  of  maturity  during  the  average  season.  The  maturity 
may  be  judged  by  the  hardness  and  solidity  of  ear,  the  weight  of  ear  in 
proportion  to  size,  the  brightness  of  color,  the  plumpness  of  grain  at  tip, 
and  the  size  and  color  of  germ. 

2.   Seed  Condition 

Determined  largely  by  the  maturity  as  indicated  above,  and  also  by 
the  storage  conditions.  Corn  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  weather 
often  has  a  bleached  appearance,  or  it  may  show  evidence  of  mold  or 
fungus  diseases,  or  the  seed  coat  may  be  wrinkled,  causing  blisters. 
Germs  which  have  been  frozen  while  containing  a  large  per  cent  of 
water  are  usually  black. 

3.   Shape  of  Kernel 

Kernels  should  be  full  and  plump  at  the  tip,  and  broaden  gradually 
from  tip  to  crown,  with  the  edges  straight,  so  that  they  touch  the  full 
length.  Thin,  shrunken,  sharp-pointed  kernels  are  especially  objectionable. 

4.  Uniformity  and  Trueness  of  Type 

The  ears  should  be  uniform  in  size,  shape,  indentation  and  size  of 
kernel.  Uniformity  or  trueness  to  the  type  determined  upon  is  essential 
to  progress  in  corn  improvement.  Uniformity  of  kernels  is  essential  to 
machine  planting. 

5.   Weight  of  Ear 

The  weight  of  ear,  and  the  weight  of  ear  in  proportion  to  size,  are 
valuable  means  of  judging  corn  that  is  thoroughly  air  dry,  or  in  com- 
paring ears  of  like  moisture  content.  When  the  stand  and  other  condi- 
tions of  growth  are  equal,  weight  of  ear  is  one  of  the  best  indications  of 
productiveness. 

6.  Length  and  Proportion 

Length  will  vary  according  to  environment.  No  standard  can  be  set 
by  the  score  card  save  that  set  by  maturity  and  proportion.  Circum- 
ference is  measured  at  one-third  the  distance  from  butt  to  tip.  In  nor- 
mal-sized ears  it  should  not  exceed  four-fifths,  nor  fall  below  three- 
fourths  the  length. 

7.  Color  of  Grain  and  Cob 

Color  of  grain  and  cob  is  of  importance,  mainly  as  an  indication  of 
the  purity  of  breeding.  Grains  which  are  off  color,  and  tints  in  the 
grain  or  cob  which  vary  from  the  standard,  indicate  mixture  and  lack  of 
breeding  and  type. 

8.   Butts  and  Tips 

Kernels  should  extend  in  regular  rows  over  the  butt  and  against  the 
shank.  The  shank,  however,  should  have  sufficient  size  to  support  the 
ear.  Swelled,  open  or  badly  compre;ssed  butts,  as  well  as  those  having 
kernels  of  irregular  size  are  objectionable.  The  tips  should  have  kernels 
of  even  size,  well  dented  and  preferably  in  regular  rowS._  An  under- 
sized ear  is  more  objectionable. with  a  completely  capped  tip  than  wltH 
a  little  bare  cob.     A  sharply  tapering  tip  is  not  desirable. 


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76  THE    STUDY   OF   CORN 

quently  impossible  to  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  ear  as 
a  whole,  the  mind  seeming  to  be  preoccupied  by  those 
characteristics  that  have  been  examined  in  detail.  The 
following  rules  for  judging  will  be  found  to  be  help- 
ful: 

Pick  up  one  of  the  ears  and  without  looking  for 
anything  in  particular  you  should  get  an  idea  of  its 
appearance,  type,  weight,  firmness,  maturity,  etc.  You 
may  not  stop  to  think  what,  in  particular,  is  good  or 
bad  about  the  ear,  except  in  a  very  general  way,  but 
it  impresses  you  as  a  good  ear  or  as  a  poor  ear  or 
as  a  fair  or  medium  ear.  If  a  good  ear  as  compared 
with  the  others  lay  it  over  to  the  right,  if  a  poor  one 
to  the  left,  and  if  a  medium  one  give  it  an  inter- 
mediate position.  Pick  up  the  next  ear  and  examine 
it  in  a  similar  way  and  so  on  through  the  sample. 
You  have  a  better  idea  now  as  to  how  good  the  sample 

One  of  the  most  common  and  most  serious  mistakes 
made  by  the  student,  especially  the  beginner,  is  in  judging 
almost  entirely  by  means  of  the  eye  and  in  not  training 
the  hand.  The  hand,  if  properly  trained,  will  be  found  to 
be  as  good  and  frequently  the  better  means  of  selection  of 
the  two. 

In  order  to  train  the  hand  in  the  selection  of  seed  corn, 
it  is  well  to  practise  for  a  while  the  ranking  of  ears  entirely 
by  the  hand,  then  carefully  studying  the  sample  with  the 
eye.  Some  of  the  things  to  be  observed  in  the  hand  selec- 
tion are  the  weight  of  ear,  hardness  and  solidness  of  ear, 
sound  of  ear  as  caught  in  the  hand,  and  the  feel  of  the  ear 
to  the  sense  of  touch. 

These  points  are  indicative  of  the  adaptability,  maturity, 
seed  condition  and  the  amount  of  corn — some  of  the  most 
important  points  to  be  considered  in  seed-corn  selection, 
and  points  that  are  frequently  overlooked  when  the  hands 
are  not  trained  to  judge  them. 


THE   JUDGING   AND   SELECTION  OF    CORN  7/ 

is.  Go  over  it  again  in  a  similar  manner  and  see  if 
your  first  arrangement  is  satisfactory. 

If  your  first  impression  does  not  indicate  much  dif- 
ference between  certain  ears,  do  not  be  particular  about 
the  placing,  but  get  the  ranking  approximately  cor- 
rect, according  to  the  first  impression.  These  two  or 
three  examinations  should  not  require  more  than  one- 
half  to  one  minute  for  a  five-ear  sample.  In  judging 
most  samples,  there  are  some  decisions  that  can  be 
readily  made,  some  ears  perhaps  that  will  easily  take 
first  rank  and  some  that  can  as  readily  be  put  at  the 
bottom  of  the  list. 

The  decisions  that  can  be  made  most  easily  should 
always  be  made  first,  and  then  plenty  of  time  devoted 
to  the  more  difficult  decisions.  After  this  preliminary 
arrangement  of  sample,  take  out  some  of  the  grains 
and  examine  the  ears  carefully,  first  comparing  the 
first  and  second,  then  the  second  and  third,  and  so  on, 
rearranging  them  if  necessary.  Never  attempt  to 
compare  more  than  two  ears  at  the  same  time.  If  a 
choice  betwe(in  certain  ears  is  found  to  be  difficult, 
write  down  all  the  points  in  which  one  ear  excels  the 
other  and  whether  these  differences  are  slight,  medium 
or  large.  Then  write  down  the  points  in  which  the 
second  ear  excels  the  first;  then  if  these  points  are 
grouped  under  type,  amount  and  proportion  of  grain, 
seed  condition,  etc.,  and  are  balanced  with  each  other, 
little  difficulty  will  generally  be  found  in  coming  to 
a  satisfactory  decision. 

Comparison  judging  of  samples  in  groups.  The 
judging  of  samples  in  groups  or  classes,  as  in  a 
corn  shov^,  should  be  done  by  practically  the  same 
method  as  the  selection  of  ears  in  samples.     The 


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value  of  the  first  impression  should  not  be  over- 
looked. The  judge  should  pass  around  the  exhibit 
several  times  and  get  an  idea  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  class  and  get  some  of  the  better  samples  in  mind 
before  making  a  careful^  examination  of  any  of  the 
samples. 

In  this  preliminary  examination  several  more  sam- 
ples should  be  selected  than  required  to  be  placed,  and 
these  should  be  moved  to  another  table,  placing  them 
in  about  the  order  of  choice.  Go  over  these  samples 
once  or  twice  more  before  taking  out  many  grains  or 
making  a  detailed  examination,  rearranging  them  if 
necessary.  Then  remove  a  couple  of  grains  from  each 
ear  and  make  a  careful  examination  of  each  sample, 
first  comparing  the  first  and  second,  then  the  second 
and  third,  etc.,  moving  the  samples  if  the  first  ar- 
rangement is  not  found  satisfactory,  so  that  the  two 
samples  being  compared  are  always  adjacent  to  each 
other. 

If,  after  this  examination,  there  is  the  least  doubt  as 
to  whether  all  the  best  samples  have  been  removed  to 
the  judging  table,  bring  out  several  more  samples  and 
make  a  careful  examination. 

Importance  of  uniformity  and  type  in  judging 
samples.  Aside  from  the  qualities  already  considered 
in  the  study  of  individual  ears,  the  comparison  of 
samples  containing  several  ears  afifords  an  opportunity 
to  study  uniformity  and  type,  as  an  indication  of 
purity  of  breeding. 

A  sample  lacking  in  type  not  only  shows  little  or 
no  breeding,  but  indicates  that  the  exhibitor  has  made 
little  or  no  study  of  corn  and  has  made  no  definite 
conclusions  as  to  what  type  he  prefers.     Uniformity 


THE   JUDGING   AND   SELECTION   OF    CORN  8 1 

should  in.  .ude  uniformity  in  size  and  shape  of  ear, 
color,  ind  ntation,  number  of  rows,  size  and  shape  of 
grain,  an      in  fact,  all  characteristics  of  the  ear. 

W      TER  SELECTION  OF  SEED  CORN 

The  ]  jgressive  farmer  will  pick  his  seed  corn  in 
the  fall  either  from  the  standing  stalk  or  from  the 
ear  con  .  as  husked,  and  put  it  in  a  dry,  well-venti- 
lated n  jm,  where  it  will  dry  out  before  freezing 
weather.  More  than  sufficient  corn  for  the  next  sea- 
son's crop  should  be  saved  so  as  to  afford  an  op- 
portunity for  further  selection.  This  selection  should 
be  made  in  late  winter,  after  the  corn  has  dried  out 
and  has  passed  through  the  most  severe  of  the  winter 
weather  and  before  the  rush  of  the  spring's  work 
begins. 

On  most  farms  the  month  of  February  is  found  to 
be  a  convenient  and  satisfactory  time  for  this  work. 
The  corn  should  be  taken  from  the  racks  upon  which 
it  has  been  stored  and  placed  upon  tables  or  benches 
in  a  warm,  light  room.  Never  attempt  to  select  seed 
corn  in  the  barn  on  a  winter's  day,  but  take  it  to 
the  house,  where  you  will  be  comfortable,  and  where 
you  can  devote  your  entire  attention  to  the  study  of 
the  corn.  Be  sure  that  the  room  is  well  lighted,  with 
natural  light,  choosing  a  bright  day  and  working  only 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  if  necessary. 

GERMINATION  OF  CORN 

Many  ways  of  making  a  germinator  and  conducting 
the  test  have  been  suggested,  the  choice  of  which  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  convenience  of  the  operator. 
The  essential  features  are  that  the  corn  be  kept  in  a 
moist  condition,  that  the  temperature  be  kept  above 


82  THE    STUDY   OF   CORN 

freezing  and  that  the  grains  from  each  ear  be  placed 
in  a  separate  check  or  pocket  so  that  its  identity  with 
the  ear  shall  not  be  lost. 

.\  hand-made  sand  germinator  which  has  proven 
very  satisfactory  may  be  made  as  follows :  Alake  a  flat 
box  3x20x30  inches,  inside  measure,  and  fill  nearly  full 
with  moist  sand,  and  then  mark  into  squares  two  inches 
across  by  a  cord  which  is  passed  around  nails  driven 
in  the  sides  of  the  box,  the  checks  in  the  first  row  be- 
ginning in  one  end  are  numbered  i  to  10,  second  1 1 
to  20,  etc.  After  placing  six  grains  from  each  ear  in 
their  respective  checks  another  half-inch  of  moist  sand 
is  used  to  cover  the  corn.  If,  in  any  check,  all  of  the 
grains  do  not  grow,  or  if  the  sprouts  do  not  show 
sufficient  vigor,  the  corresponding  ear  should  be  dis- 
carded. A  week  to  ten  days'  time  is  usually  required 
to  make  a  germination  test  with  a  sand  germinator. 

If  it  is  desired  to  make  several  tests  in  the  same 
germinator  in  a  short  time,  the  sawdust  germinator 
will  be  found  more  efficient.  This  germinator  may  be 
made  and  operated  as  follows :  Make  a  box  3x20x30 
inches,  inside  measure,  fill  one-half  full  with  old  saw- 
dust which  has  been  thoroughly  moistened  (preferably 
sterilized  by  boiling),  then  cover  with  a  piece  of  white 
cloth  marked  into  two-inch  squares  and  numbered  as 
above.  After  placing  the  grain  from  the  several  ears 
in  their  respective  checks,  cover  with  another  piece  of 
cloth  and  tack  at  the  corners,  then  lay  on  a 
third  piece  of  cloth  which  is  large  enough  to  extend 
up  over  the  edges  of  the  box  and  fill  the  remainder 
of  the  box  with  moist  sawdust,  taking  care  to  see  that 
it  is  well  firmed,  especially  about  the  corners. 

After  three  to  six  days,  depending  upon  the  tcm- 


THE   JUDGING  AND   SELECTION  OF   CORN  83 

perature  of  the  room,  the  corn  should  show  vigorous 
sprouts,  when  the  upper  layer  of  sawdust  should  be 
removed  by  lifting  the  upper  cloth,  after  which  the 
second  cloth  should  be  carefully  pulled  back  so  as  not 
to  disturb  the  grains.  If,  in  any  check,  one  or  more 
grains  fail  to  germinate,,  or  if  the  sprouts  do  not  show  a 
vigorous  growth,  the  corresponding  ear  should  be  dis- 
carded, but  these  ears  should  not  be  thrown  out  at  once, 
but  simply  pulled  out  a  little  so  that  the  order  of  the 
ears  may  be  preserved  until  the  remainder  of  the  test  is 
studied  and  checked  over  the  second  time  if  necessary. 
After  the  corn  has  been  placed  on  the  tables  and 
all  the  ears  of  low  germinating  quality  discarded,  the 
process  of  selecting  the  best  ears  should  be  much  the 
same  as  that  already  described  for  the  selection  of 
ears  and  samples.  It  is  best  to  make  the  preliminary 
selection  by  the  "first  impression,"  going  back  and 
forth  over  the  corn  several  times  to  place  the  ears  in 
their  approximate  rank  before  taking  out  many  grains 
or  making  a  detailed  study.  Then  take  several  grains 
from  each  ear  and  make  a  careful  comparison  of  all 
the  best  ears,  considering  the  adaptability,  maturity, 
seed  condition,  type  and  other  points.  Pick  out  enough 
ears  to  furnish  the  required  amount  of  seed  and  dis- 
card the  remainder  or  lay  it  aside  for  emergency. 

HOW  TO  SHELL  AND  GRADE  CORN  FOR 
PLANTING 

Shell  off  from  butt  and  tip  of  ear  all  grains  which 
are  irregular  in  shape  or  larger  or  smaller  than  the 
type  determined  upon.  Pick  out  from  the  remainder 
all  the  irregular  or  undesirable  grains.  If  the  size  of 
grain  varies  somewhat  on  the  different  ears,  grade  ac- 


84  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 

cording  to  size  of  grain  and  shell  and  plant  each 
grade  separately,  shelling  by  hand  so  as  to  avoid  crack- 
ing of  grains. 

Shell  each  ear  in  a  dish  by  itself  and  discard  all 
ears  which  have  very  pointed,  badly  discolored, 
cracked,  mixed  or  otherwise  undesirable  grains.  Use 
a  corn  grader  to  make  a  still  more  uniform  grade  of 
grains.  In  order  to  test  the  grading  and  also  the 
adjustment  of  the  planter  to  your  corn,  make  a  cali- 
bration test  of  your  planter. 

To  do  this,  block  up  one  end  of  the  axle  and  turn 
the  wheel  slowly,  pulling  back  the  trip  that  the  chain 
passes  through  at  regular  intervals,  but  not  more  than 
twice  for  each  revolution  of  the  wheel.  Count  the  num- 
ber of  times  the  required  number  of  grains  are  dropped. 
If  the  proper  number  of  grains  are  not  dropped  85 
times  out  of  100,  the  corn  should  be  more  carefully 
graded  or  different  plates  substituted  in  the  planter. 

All  the  possible  placings  of  five  ears  are  given  in  the 
table  on  opposite  page.  In  order  to  use  the  grade  sheet 
compare  the  student's  placing  with  the  correct  placing 
and  transpose  the  placing  to  numerals  based  upon  i,  2, 
3,  4,  5  as  correct  placing.  Example :  if  A,  D,  E,  C,  B 
should  be  the  correct  placing  for  a  sample  and  a  stu- 
dent should  place  it  D,  E,  C,  A,  B,  the  student  has 
placed  D,  which  should  have  been  second,  first ;  there- 
fore, put  down  2  for  the  first  rank;  the  student  has 
placed  E,  which  should  have  been  third,  second ;  there- 
fore, put  down  3  for  the  second  rank ;  C,  which  should 
have  been  fourth,  is  placed  third,  so  4  is  put  down  for 
third  rank,  and  so  on,  when  the  student's  placing  trans- 
posed will  be  2,  3,  4,  I,  5,  the  grade  for  which  may 
be  read  directly  from  the  grade  sheet. 


CHAPTER  III 

FIELD  SELECTION  OF  CORN 

Environment.  Plants  develop  largely  according 
to  their  environment,  such  as  fertility  of  soil,  moisture, 
climatic  conditions  and  thickness  of  stand,  etc.  The 
soil  is  always  more  or  less  uneven,  due  to  differences 
in  slope,  elevation,  texture,  sub-soil,  previous  cropping, 
treatment,  etc.  But  most  serious  of  all  as  regards  the 
field  selection  of  corn  is  the  unevenness  of  stand,  which 
gives  certain  plants  two  to  six  times  as  much  plant 
food,  moisture,  and  sunlight  as  those  in  a  normal 
stand. 

The  large  production  of  these  plants  is  not  inherited 
by  the  progeny  unless  grown  under  equally  favorable 
conditions.  The  desirable  type  of  plant  is  the  one 
which  will  produce  a  good  ear  under  crow^ded  or  un- 
favorable conditions,  whose  high-yielding  qualities  are 
inherent  and  w411  be  transmitted  to  the  progeny.  After 
an  ear  has  been  separated  from  the  stalk  and  its  en- 
vironmental conditions,  it  can  no  longer  be  told  to 
w^hat  extent  its  size,  weight  and  other  desirable  con- 
ditions are  inherited,  and  to  what  extent  due  to  en- 
vironment. 

No  doubt  the  great  majority  of  the  ears  selected 
after  husking  owe  their  appearance,  in  part  at  least, 
to  the  fact  that  the  mother  plants  have  had  more 
favorable  conditions  than  the  average.  That  the  ear 
which  is  carefully  selected  in  the  field  is  more  val- 
iiable  than  the  ear  selected  after  husking  has  been 

86 


FIELD    SELECTION    OF    CORN  8/ 

demonstrated  by  Mr.  C.  G.  Williams,  of  the  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station,  as  shown  in  the  table  below.  The 
cars  selected  in  the  field  were  taken  only  from  hills 
with  three  plants,  that  were  surrounded  by  full  hills 
on  every  side,  while  the  ordinary  selection  was  made 
from  the  wagon  at  the  time  of  husking. 

TABLE  VIII 
Plant  Selection  vs.  Ordinary  Selection 

Bushels 
Av.  yield  per  acre  of  4  plant  selection  plots  1906  ...  72.49 
Av.  yield  per  acre  of  4  ordinary  selection  plots  1906     69.Z5 

Av.  gain  for  plant  selection 3.23 

Av.  yield  per  acre  of  10  plant  selection  plots  1907   ..     89.04 
Av.  yield  per  acre  of  10  ordinary  selection  plots  190/     84.64 

Av.  gain  for  plant  selection ;a;  ;;.:, ot'i^ 

Av.  yield  per  acre  of  plant  selection  plots   06-07 6U./0 

Av.  yield  per  acre  of  plant  selection  plots  '06-'07 76.95 

Av.  gain  for  plant  selection  '06-'07 3.81 

TIME  TO  SELECT  SEED  CORN  FROM  FIELD 

When  to  select.  The  best  time  to  select  the  seed 
corn  from  the  field  is  as  the  corn  is  nearing  maturity 
and  some  of  the  plants  are  nearly  or  quite  mature 
and  others  somewhat  immature,  as  shown  by  the  de- 
velopment of  the  grain  and  the  greenness  of  the  leaves. 

If  the  variety  is  found  to  be  too  late  in  maturing 
for  the  average  season,  select  some  of  the  more  ad- 
vanced ears ;  or  if  too  early  to  utilize  the  entire  grow- 
ing season,  select  some  of  the  later  maturing  ears. 

Opportunity  is  ofifered  at  this  particular  time  to 
study  not  only  the  maturity  and  adaptability  of  the 
plant,  but  the  character  of  stalk  and  foliage,  the  height 


88  THE    STUDY   OF    CORN 


EXPLANATION  OF  SCORE-CARD 


Adaptability 


Plants  must  be  adapted  to  the  average  soil  and  seasonal 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  locality.  Corn  that  is  too  late 
or  too  early  in  maturing,  or  that  shows  lack  of  adapta- 
bility to  conditions,  should  be  cut  accordingly. 

Vigor 

Evidences  of  vigor  are  shown  by  uprightness  of  stalk,  by 
the  development  of  stalk,  leaf  and  ear,  and  by  freedom 
from  disease.  In  marking  for  vigor  note  carefully  the  con- 
ditions of  growth. 

Height   of  Plant  and   Height  and  Angle  of  Ear 

Cut  for  extremes  in  the  case  of  both  plant  and  ear.  The 
ear  should  turn  down  at  maturity. 

Uniformity 

Uniformity  of  plant  and  ear,  and  manner  of  growth, 
height  of  plant,  ear,  etc.,  and  conformity  to  type  deter- 
mined upon. 

Weight  of  Ear 

While  the  weight  of  ear  can  only  be  estimated  at  the 
time  selections  are  made,  it  is  a  point  to  take  into  considera- 
tion in  selecting  for  high  yield,  if  the  conditions  of  growth 
are  noted. 


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90  THE    STUDY    OF    CORN 

and  angle  of  ear  and  other  characteristics  which  should 
be  considered  in  the  field  selection  of  corn. 

The  following  score-card  (page  89),  which  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Ohio  State  University,  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  the  Ohio  Corn  Improvement  Asso- 
ciation, is  suggestive  of  some  of  the  more  important 
characteristics  to  be  considered  in  the  field  selection  of 
corn : 

RULES  FOR  FIELD  SELECTION  OF  CORN 

(i)  Choose  only  those  plants  which  have  a  normal 
amount  of  soil  and  sunlight,  no  matter  how  vigorous 
they  may  appear  or  how  large  and  well-formed  ears 
they  produce.  The  plant  which  is  able  to  produce  the 
normal  ear  under  crowded  conditions  is  to  be  prelerred 
over  the  one  with  a  large  ear,  whose  size  and  de- 
velopment are  due  to  the  fact  that  there  are  vacant 
spaces  next  to  the  plant  allowing  it  more  plant  food 
and  sunlight. 

(2)  Choose  plants  that  are  well  adapted  to  the  soil 
a.id  climatic  conditions,  as  judged  by  the  vigor  of 
growth  and  the  earliness  or  lateness  of  maturity.  Corn 
which  does  not  utilize  practically  the  entire  growing 
season,  or  corn  which  is  not  well  matured  in  a  season 
of  average  length,  is  not  adapted  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions. 

Corn  which  has  been  changed  from  poor  land  to 
rich  land  is  apt  to  show  its  lack  of  adaptability  by 
the  smallness  of  stalks  and  plants,  by  its  early  ma- 
turity and  by  the  appearance  of  the  ears.  Corn  which 
has  been  changed  from  fertile  soil  to  thin  land  is 
apt  to  attempt  to  make  too  large  a  growth  and  to 
fail  of  the  proper  development  of  the  ear. 


FIELD   SELECTION    OF   CORN  9I 

(3)  Select  plants  which   are  of  vigorous,  healthy 
y   growth,  as  evidenced  by  the  size  of  stalk,  width  of 

leaf,  color  of  leaf  and  freedom  from  disease. 

(4)  Do  not  select  ears  from  stalks  which  show  a 
marked  tendency  to  produce  suckers.  The  suckering 
of  the  corn  plant  is  doubtless  of  considerable  economic 
value  in  thickening  the  stand  when  too  thin,  but  the 
plant  which  produces  several  suckers  in  a  good  stand 
and  normal  season  is  not  to  be  desired,  as  the  suckers 
rob  the  plant  of  food  and  moisture  the  same  as  weeds, 
and  seldom  produce  an  ear  of  any  value. 

(5)  Select  ears  only  from  standing  stalks.  In  some 
varieties,   practically   every   season,   and   in   most   va- 

^  rieties  in  certain  seasons,  large  losses  occur  from  the 
weakness  of  the  stalk.  The  ability  of  the  stalk  to 
stand  upright  has  been  shown  to  be  an  hereditary  char- 
acter. By  the  selection  of  ears  from  those  stalks 
which  stand  upright,  the  variety  may  be  improved  in 
this  regard. 

(6)  Select  ears  which  appear  at  the  proper  height 
on  the  stalk  and  which  are  heavy  enough  to  turn  down 
at  maturity.     The  Illinois  station,  in  six  generations 

/      of  breeding,    produced    from   the   same   variety   high 
'        and  low  ear  strains  which  differed  from  each  other 
nearly  3  feet  in  the  average  height  of  ear,  showing 
that  this  characteristic  is  hereditary  and  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  breed  to  any  desired  height  or  ear. 

(7)  Select  plants  which  have  one  good  ear  each 
rather  than  those  that  have  two  or  more  inferior  ears. 
The  maximum  production  of  grain  per  acre  can  doubt- 
less be  as  easily  reached  with  one  ear  per  stalk  as  with 
more,  and  the  cost  of  harvesting  is  materially  increased 
in  the  selection  for  the  latter  type. 


THIS    ILLUSTRATION    SHOWS    SEVERAL   TYPES    OF   CORN    PLANTS 


The  first  at  the  left  shows  a  vigorous  growth  and  good  ear  attached  to  a 
normal  shank.  The  second  plant  has  too  long  a  shank,  which 
is  apt  to  be  broken  off  or  twisted  so  as  to  prevent  the  sap  of  the 
plant  going  to  the  ear,  to  complete  its  development.  The  third 
plant  represents  the  type  which  has  a  tall,  slender  stalk  with  nar- 
row yellowish-green  leaves,  and  a  very  small,  poorly  developed 
ear.  The  fourth  plant  shows  a  vigorous  growth  of  stalk  and 
leaf,  but  has  produced  no  ear.  The  fifth  plant  is  undesirable  be- 
cause of  its  abnormal  height  of  stalk  and  ear.  Tlie  last  plant  to 
the  right  has  been  attacked  by  smut  and  has  failed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  an  ear. 


v/ 


FIELD    SELECTION    OF    CORN  93 

In  the  breeding  of  a  strain  of  corn  to  be  used  ex- 
clusively for  silage  or  for  feeding  on  the  stalk  the 
size  of  ear  is  of  little  importance,  so  long  as  the  pro- 
duction of  grain  and  forage  is  satisfactory,  some  pre- 
ferring the  prolific  or  many-cared  type. 

(8)  Select  ears  that  are  heavy.  While  weight  of 
ear  can  only  be  estimated  at  the  time  selections  are 
made,  and  while  the  moisture  content  of  ears  will  vary 
considerably,  the  weight  of  ear  is  a  valuable  point  to 
take  into  consideration  as  an  indication  of  high  yield, 
if  the  uniformity  of  the  stand  is  considered,  as  sug- 
gested above,  and  only  those  plants  selected  which 
have  no  vacant  spaces  adjacent  to  them. 

(9)  Select  ears  of  normal  size  and  fairly  short 
shanks.  In  some  varieties  the  shanks  are  extremely 
small  and  rather  long,  so  that  the  ears  are  blown  about 
by  the  wind  and  broken  off  in  harv.esting.  Most  of 
these  ears  drop  to  the  ground  and  rot,  or  at  least 
fail  of  perfect  maturity  and  seed  condition.  For  nor- 
mal-sized ears  the  shank  should  be  about  s/s  inch 
in  diameter.  Smaller  shanks  are  too  small  to  prop- 
erly support  the  ear,  and  larger  ones  make  it  difficult 
to  husk  the  corn. 

(10)  Partially  pull  the  husk  from  one  side  of  ear 
and  consider  the  general  character  of  ear,  as  discussed 
in  Chapter  II,  so  as  to  avoid  the  selection  of  many 
ears  which  would  have  to  be  discarded  later. 

(11)  Uniformity  in  type.  By  considering  the  ear 
in  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  plant,  there  is  no 
better  place  to  select  for  uniform  type  of  plant  and 
ear  than  in  the  field.  Select  plants  of  a  uniform  height, 
maturity,  ear,  etc. 

As  field  selection  of  corn  should  be  made  at  about 


94  THE   STUDY   OF   CORN 

the  time  of  maturity  or  the  time  the  leaves  become 
dry  and  the  grain  passes  from  the  dough  to  the  mature 
stage,  it  is  not  best  to  pick  the  ear  from  the  stalk,  as 
the  sap  of  the  stalk  is  of  much  value  in  the  proper 
development  of  the  ear. 

The  ears  may  be  selected  and  marked  by  a  piece  of 
cloth  or  otherwise,  so  that  these  ears  may  be  noticed 
at  the  time  of  husking.  Or,  what  is  perhaps  a  more 
satisfactory  way,  is  to  cut  the  stalk  at  the  time  the 
selection  is  made  and  carry  all  such  stalks  to  the  edge 
of  the  field  and  place  in  separate  shocks.  This  corn 
may  then  be  husked  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  and 
properly  stored  without  waiting  for  the  husking  of 
the  remainder  of  the  field. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Adaptability    of    Corn...  17,  64,  90 
Amount   of   Grain   and    Propor- 
tion  of   Grain   to   Cob.. 46,  68 

Butts  and   Tips   of    Ears 48 

Characteristics    of    Corn — Rela- 
tive  Value   of 64 

Color  of  Ear 42 

Due  to  Immaturity 50 

Comparison  Judging  of  Corn.. 

35,  63,  70,  77 

Comparison   Sheet   A 36,  37 

Comparison    Sheet    B 66,  67 

Comparison    Sheet    C 72,   11 

Comparison    Sheet  D 78,  79 

Composition  of  Corn. 58,  61,   62,  69 

Color   of   Germs 52 

Ear — Dryness  of 48 

Hardness    of    48 

Shape    of    41 

Size  of    41 

Envii-onment  —  Effect      of      in 

Corn 86 

Exhibits    of    Corn— Preparation 

of   for  Judging 35 

Germination    of    Corn 81 

Germs — Color   of    52 

Size    of 54 

Grade     Sheet     for     Comparison 

Judging  of  Corn 85 

Grading  Corn  for  Planting 83 

Height  of  Ear  on  Stalk 91 

Indentation   of   Corn 42 

Insects  which   Attack   Corn 56 

Judging   of    Corn 34 

By    the    Hand 76 

Kernel  of  Corn— Blisters  on...    54 


PAGE 

Kernel  of   Corn — 

Cracking  of 54 

Composition    of 58 

Depth    of 46 

Shape    of    54 

Size  of    54 

Structure  of    60,  61 

Uniformity    of 58,  69 

Maturity    of    Corn 48 

Mould     and     Fungus     Diseases 

in   Corn 56 

Number  of  Ears  per   Plant....    91 

Number  of  Rows  in   Ear 46 

Score-Card   for    Corn 74,   75 

Score-Card   for    Study    of   Corn 

in  Field    88,  89 

Seed    Condition   of   Corn 65 

Selection   of    Seed    Corn 81,  86 

In    Field— Rules   for 90 

Plant  versus   Ordinary 87 

Shank  of  Ear 63,   70,  93 

Shape  of  Ear 41 

Shape    of    Grain 46 

Size  of  Ear 41 

Space    between    Grains 48 

Study     of     Characteristics     of 

Corn     33 

Suckering    of    Corn 91 

Types  of  Corn — Description  of.   11 

Dent    Corn    1 1 

Flint  Corn    ^2 

Pod  Corn    ^  6 

Pop   Corn 14 

Soft    Corn    13 

Sweet    Corn 14 

Uniformity   f)f   Type 68,  80 

95 


96 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Uniformity   of   Grains 58,  69 

\'arieties     of     Corn  —  Descrip- 
tion  of    17 

Boone   County  White 17 

Clarage    19 

Cocke    Prolific 19 

Collier's    Excelsior 20 

Funk's  Yellow   Dent 20 

Hickory    King 21 

Hildreth    21 

Hogue's  Yellow  Dent 22 

Kansas    Sunflower 22 

Learning    23 

Minnesota   No.   13 24 


PAGE 

Varieties  of  Corn — 

Pickett's  Yellow  Dent 24 

Pride  of  the  North 25 

Reid's    Yellow    Dent 25 

Silver    King    27 

Silvermine    27 

Varieties    of    Northern    Zone — 

Description   of 29 

Varieties     of      North      Central 
Zone — Description    of 30 

Varieties     of      South      Central 
Zone — Description    of 31 

Varieties    of    Southern    Zone — 

Description     of 32 

Weight  of   Ear 46,  50,  93 


^ 


^ 


